AP GOV: Summer assignment

Realism

A theory of international relations that focuses on the tendency of nations to operate from self-interest.

Idealism

A theory of international relations that focuses on the hope the nations will act together to solve international problems and promote peace.

Isolationism

The desire to avoid international entanglement altogether.

Internationalism

The belief that nations must engage in international problem solving.

Unilateralism

A philosophy that encourages individual nations to act on their own when

facing threats from other nations.

Bush Doctrine

A policy adopted by the Bush administration in 2001 that asserts America’s right to attack any nation that has weapons of mass destruction that might be used against U.S. interests at home or abroad.

Multilateralism

A philosophy that encourages individual nations tacked together to solve

international problems.

Hard power

The reliance on economic and military strength to solve international problems.

Soft power

The reliance on diplomacy and negotiation to solve international problems.

Theory of deterrence

A theory that is based on creating enough military strength to convince

other nations not to attack first.

Weapons of mass destruction

Biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons that can cause a massive number of deaths in a single use.

Normal trade relations

Trade status granted as part of an international trade policy that gives a nation the same favorable trade concessions and tariffs that the best trading partners receive.

National Intelligence Director

The Federal government’s primary intelligence officer, responsible for overseeing all national intelligence agencies and providing advice to the President on terrorist threats.

Bipartisanship

A policy that emphasizes a united front and cooperation between the major

political parties, especially on sensitive foreign policy issues.

Economic sanctions

Denial of export, import, or financial relations with the target country in

an effort to change that nation’s policies.

Unfunded mandates

Programs that the Federal government requires States to implement

without Federal funding.

Entitlements

Programs such as unemployment insurance, disaster relief, or disability

payments that provide benefits to all eligible citizens.

Means-tested entitlements

Programs such as Medicaid and welfare under which applicants

must meet eligibility requirements based on need.

Public assistance

Aid to the poor; “welfare.”

Social insurance

Programs in which eligibility is based on prior contributions to government,

usually in the form of payroll taxes.

Social Security

A combination of entitlement programs, paid for by employer and employee taxes, that includes retirement benefits, health insurance, and support for disabled workers and the children of deceased or disabled workers.

Medicare

National Health Insurance program for the elderly and disabled.

Medicaid

Federal program that provides medical benefits for low-income persons.

Health maintenance organization (HMO)

Alternative means of health care in which people or their employers are charged a set amount and the HMO provides health care and covers hospital costs.

Medical savings account

Alternative means of health care in which individuals make tax-

deductible contributions to a special account that can be used to pay medical expenses.

Public policy

A specific course of action taken by government to achieve a public goal.

Policy agenda

The informal list of issues that Congress and the president consider most

important for action.

Distributive policy

A type of policy that provides benefits to all Americans.

Redistributive policy

A type of policy that takes benefits (usually through taxes) from one

group of Americans and gives them to another (usually through spending).

Rule

The precise legal definition of how government will implement a policy.

Iron triangle

A policy-making alliance that involves a very strong ties among a congressional

committee, an interest group, and a Federal Department or agency.

Issue network

A policy-making alliance among loosely connected participants that comes

together on a particular issue, then disbands.

Fiscal policy

Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling taxing and spending.

Monetary policy

Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling the

money supply and thus interest rates.

Inflation

A rise in the general price level (and decrease in dollar value) owing to an increase in the volume of money and credit in relation to available goods.

Unemployment

The number of Americans who are out of work but actively looking for a job.

The number does not usually include those who are not looking.

Excise tax

Consumer tax on a specific kind of merchandise, such as tobacco.

Deficit

The difference between the revenues raised annually from sources of income other than borrowing and the expenditures of government, including paying the interest on past borrowing.

Tariff

Tax levied on imports to help protect the nation’s industries, labor, or farmers from foreign competition. It can also be used to raise additional revenue.

Progressive tax

A tax graduated so that people with higher incomes pay larger fraction of their income than people with lower incomes.

Regressive tax

A tax whereby people with lower incomes pay a higher fraction of their income than people with higher incomes.

National debt

The total amount of money the Federal government has borrowed to finance deficit spending over the years.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Presidential staff agency that serves as a clearinghouse for budgetary requests and management improvements for government agencies

Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

An agency of Congress that analyzes presidential budget

recommendations and estimates the cost of proposed legislation.

Sales tax

General tax on sales transactions, sometimes exempting food and drugs.

Value-added tax (VAT)

A tax on increased value of the product at each stage of production

and distribution rather than just at the point of sale.

Tax expenditure

Loss of tax revenue due to Federal laws that provide special tax incentives or benefits to individuals or businesses.

Monetarism

A theory that government should control the money supply to encourage

economic growth and restrain inflation.

Federal Reserve System

The system created by Congress in 1913 to establish banking practices and regulate currency in circulation and the amount of credit available. It consists of 12 regional banks supervised by the Board of Governors. Often called simply the Fed.

Laissez-faire economics

Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs

beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.

Keynesian economics

Economic theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms.

Trade deficit

An imbalance in international trade in which the value of imports exceeds the value of exports.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

International organization derived from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that promotes it free trade around the world.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

An international trade organization with more than 130 members, including the United States and the People’s Republic of China, that seeks to encourage free trade by lowering tariffs and other trade restrictions.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Agreement signed by the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 1992 to form the largest free trade zone in the world.

Protectionism

Policy of erecting trade barriers to protect domestic industry.

Offshoring

The practice of exporting U.S. jobs to lower paid employees in other nations.

Regulation

Efforts by government to alter the free operation of the market to achieve social goals such as protecting workers and the environment.

Monopoly

Domination of an industry by a single company; also the company that dominates the industry.

Antitrust legislation

Federal laws (starting with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890) that try to

prevent a monopoly from dominating an industry and restraining trade.

Trust

A monopoly that controls goods and services, often in combinations that reduce competition.

Closed shop

A company with a labor agreement under which union membership is a condition of employment.

Union shop

A company in which new employees must join a union within a stated time

period.

Labor injunction

A court order forbidding specific individuals or groups from performing certain acts (such as striking) that the court considers harmful to the rights and property of an employer or community.

Collective bargaining

Method whereby representatives of the union and employer determine wages, hours, and other conditions of employment through direct negotiation.

Environmental impact statement

Statement required by Federal law from all agencies for any project using Federal funds to assess the potential affect of the new construction or development on the environment.

Deregulation

A policy promoting cutbacks in the amount of Federal regulation in specific

areas of economic activity.

Judicial Review

The power of a court to refuse to enforce a law or government regulation that in the opinion of the judges conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or, in a state court, the state constitution.

Adversary system

A judicial system in which the court of law is a neutral arena where two

parties argue their differences.

Criminal law

A law that defines crimes against the public order.

Civil law

A law that governs relationships between individuals and defines their legal rights.

Justiciable dispute

A dispute growing out of an actual case or controversy and that is capable

of settlement by legal methods.

Defendant

In a criminal action, the person or party accused of an offense.

Plea Bargain

Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.

Public defender system

Arrangement whereby public officials are hired to provide legal

assistance to people accused of crimes who are unable to hire their own attorneys.

Original jurisdiction

The authority of a court to hear a case “in the first instance.”

Appellate jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Court of appeals

A court with appellate jurisdiction that hears appeals from the decisions of

lower courts.

Precedent

A decision made by a higher court such as a circuit court of appeals or the Supreme Court that is binding on all other federal courts.

Writ of Habeas corpus

A court order requiring explanation to a judge why a prisoner is being

held in custody.

Senatorial courtesy

Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for

approval to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.

Judicial restraint

Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect what the framers intended and what its words literally say.

Judicial Activism

Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect current conditions and values.

Stare decisis

The rule of precedent, whereby a rule or law contained in a judicial decision is commonly viewed as binding on judges whenever the same question is presented.

Writ of certiorari

A formal writ used to bring a case before the Supreme Court.

Docket

The list of potential cases that reach the Supreme Court.

Amicus curiae brief

Literally, a “friend of the court” brief, filed by an individual or organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.

Opinion of the Court

An explanation of the decision of the Supreme Court or any other

appellate court.

Dissenting opinion

An opinion disagreeing with a majority in a Supreme Court ruling.

Concurring opinion

An opinion that agrees with the majority in a Supreme Court ruling but

differs on the reasoning.

Naturalization

A legal action conferring citizenship on an alien.

Dual citizenship

Citizenship in more than one nation.

Right of expatriation

The right to renounce one’s citizenship.

Property rights

The rights of an individual to own, use, rent, invest in, buy, and sell property.

Contract clause

Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 10) originally intended to prohibit state governments from modifying contracts made between individuals; for a while interpreted as prohibiting state governments from taking actions that adversely affect property rights; no longer interpreted so broadly and no longer constrains state governments from exercising their police powers.

Police powers

Inherent powers of state governments to pass laws to protect the public health, safety, and welfare; the national government has no directly granted police powers but accomplishes the same goals through other delegated powers.

Eminent domain

Power of a government to take private property for public use; the U.S. Constitution gives national and state governments this power and requires them to provide just compensation for property so taken.

regulatory taking

Government regulation of property so extensive that government is deemed to have taken the property by the power of eminent domain, for which it must compensate the property owners.

Due process

Established rules and regulations that restrain government officials.