Foundations of American Government and Federalism

Purposes of Government

Maintain order, provide public services, ensure national security, support the economy, and protect individual liberties.

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote on laws directly (e.g., town hall meetings).

Indirect Democracy (Republic)

Citizens elect representatives to make decisions (e.g., U.S. Congress).

Pluralist Theory

Power is distributed among many groups competing to influence policy.

Elite Theory

A small number of wealthy or powerful individuals dominate politics.

Hyperpluralism Theory

Too many strong groups create gridlock and weaken government.

Participatory Theory

Emphasizes broad participation in politics.

Primary Agent of Political Socialization

Family.

Secondary Agents of Political Socialization

Media, schools, peers, religion, political leaders, social organizations.

Hobbes' Belief

Believed people are naturally selfish, need strong ruler.

Locke's Belief

Believed in social contract theory and natural rights (life, liberty, property) and limited government.

Hobbes and Locke Similarities

Both emphasized need for government.

Locke's Advocacy

Advocated consent of the governed and right to revolt.

Declaration of Independence

Incorporated John Locke's ideas of natural rights and social contract.

Powers of Central Government under Articles of Confederation

Conduct foreign policy, make treaties, raise an army, coin money.

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

No power to tax, no executive branch, no power to regulate interstate commerce, needed unanimous consent for amendments, lacked strong central authority.

Shays' Rebellion

Showed that the federal government couldn't maintain order or respond effectively to domestic unrest.

Factions

Groups of people with shared interests that may conflict with the rights of others or the public good.

The Connecticut (Great) Compromise

Created a bicameral legislature: the Senate (equal representation for states) and the House of Representatives (representation based on population).

The Three-Fifths Compromise

Determined that slaves would count as 3/5 of a person for purposes of taxation and representation.

Popular Sovereignty

Government derives power from the people's consent.

Limited Government

Government is restricted by law and the Constitution.

Separation of Powers

Dividing government into branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent abuse of power.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the powers of the other branches.

Judicial Review

Courts have the power to review laws and executive actions to ensure they are constitutional.

Federalism

A system where power is divided between national and state governments.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

Right to a court hearing if arrested.

Bills of Attainder

Laws that punish individuals without trial.

Ex Post Facto Laws

Laws that punish actions that were legal when committed.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Requires states to recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law is supreme over state law when there is a conflict.

Federalists

Supported a strong central government to provide order and protect rights (e.g., Alexander Hamilton).

Anti-Federalists

Opposed strong central government, feared it would infringe on individual rights (e.g., Thomas Jefferson).

Barron v. Baltimore (1833)

The Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments, only federal.

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

The Bill of Rights was incorporated to apply to state governments via the 14th Amendment's due process clause.

Enumerated powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution.

Implied powers

Powers not written but necessary to carry out enumerated powers.

Inherent powers

Powers a sovereign nation has, even if not stated.

Reserved powers

Powers not given to the national government, kept by states (10th Amend.).

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by both state and national governments.

Necessary and Proper Clause

It allows Congress to stretch its powers to meet new needs.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Confirmed implied powers through the Necessary and Proper Clause; ruled states can't tax the federal government—federal law is supreme.

Cooperative Federalism

Federal and state powers are mixed and work together on common issues.

Marble Cake Federalism

Because federal and state powers are mixed and work together on common issues, like the swirls in a marble cake.

Devolution

The transfer of power from the federal government back to the states.

Fiscal Federalism

The use of federal funds (grants) to influence state policies and programs.

Carrot and Stick Metaphor

The 'carrot' is funding to encourage compliance; the 'stick' is the threat of withholding funds if states don't comply.

Grants-in-Aid

Financial assistance given to individuals or organizations for specific purposes.

Categorical Grants

Funds for specific, narrowly defined purposes with strict guidelines.

Formula Grants

Distributed based on a formula (e.g., population, income).

Project Grants

Given for specific projects via applications.

Block Grants

Broad-purpose grants with fewer restrictions—states have flexibility.

Unfunded Mandates

Require states to comply with federal rules without providing money to fund them.

No Child Left Behind

An example of unfunded mandates that demanded states improve education and testing standards without adequate funding.

New Federalism

A political philosophy that favors returning power to the states, often associated with Nixon and Reagan's administrations—emphasizes state flexibility and block grants.

Political Culture

The shared beliefs, values, and norms about how citizens relate to government and to one another.

Core Value

A fundamental belief that guides behavior and decision-making in a society.

Individualism

Belief that individuals should be responsible for themselves and their actions.

Equality of Opportunity

Everyone should have the same chance to succeed.

Free Enterprise

Economic system based on private ownership with limited government interference.

Rule of Law

All people and institutions are subject to and accountable under the law.

Limited Government

Government powers are restricted by the Constitution to protect individual rights.

Political Socialization

The process by which people develop their political beliefs, values, and ideology.

Agents of Political Socialization

Family, education, peers, media, religion, and major life events.

Political Ideology

A consistent set of beliefs about the role of government and public policy.

Conservatives

Advocate for smaller government and less regulation.

Liberals

Support larger government to address social issues.

Libertarians

People who support minimal government in both economic and personal matters—favor free markets and personal freedoms.

Populism

A political approach appealing to the interests of ordinary people who feel ignored by elites; can be right- or left-wing.

Progressivism

A belief in using government power to achieve social justice and reform—focus on civil rights, environment, and worker protections.

Political Participation

All the ways people take part in politics and government (e.g., voting, protesting, contacting officials).

Conventional Participation

Voting, volunteering for a campaign, donating to political causes, writing to public officials.

Unconventional Participation

Protesting, civil disobedience, sit-ins, boycotts.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one's political participation makes a difference.

Voter Turnout

The percentage of eligible citizens who actually vote in an election.

Factors Influencing Voting

Age (older people vote more), education (more educated vote more), income (higher income = higher turnout), political efficacy, registration laws, type of election (presidential vs. midterm).

Reasons for Lower Voter Turnout in the U.S.

Strict registration laws, weekday voting, frequent elections, low political efficacy.

15th Amendment

Gave African American men the right to vote.

19th Amendment

Gave women the right to vote.

24th Amendment

Banned poll taxes.

26th Amendment

Lowered voting age to 18.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Banned literacy tests and enforced minority voting rights.

Rational Choice Model

Voting based on personal benefit.

Retrospective Model

Voting based on past performance.

Prospective Model

Voting based on future promises.

Party-Line Model

Voting based on political party.

Primary Election

Chooses party nominee.

General Election

Final contest between party nominees.

Electoral College

System for electing the president—each state has electoral votes equal to its number of senators and representatives.

Winner-Take-All System

Encourages two-party dominance; third parties struggle to win electoral votes.

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote on policies (e.g., referendums).

Indirect Democracy

Representatives make decisions (e.g., U.S. Congress).

Pluralist Theory

Power distributed among groups (e.g., interest groups).

Elite Theory

Power held by wealthy/educated (e.g., corporate influence).

Hyperpluralism

Too many groups weaken government (gridlock).

Participatory Theory

Broad citizen involvement (e.g., town halls).

Hobbes' Philosophy

Strong government needed to control selfish humans (Leviathan).

Locke's Philosophy

Natural rights (life, liberty, property); government by consent (Two Treatises).

Shays' Rebellion

Exposed inability to maintain order (no national army).

3/5 Compromise

Slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for representation/taxes.