Physio 8: Neurotransmitters

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Last updated 3:33 PM on 9/17/26
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65 Terms

1
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what is the action of neurotransmitters

  • excitatory

  • inhibitory


2
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what is the action of neuromodulators

  • they regulate and modify the activities of synaptic transmissions

    • act on presynaptic cell to alter synthesis, release, reuptake, or metabolism of neurotransmitter


<ul><li><p>they regulate and modify the activities of synaptic transmissions</p><ul><li><p>act on presynaptic cell to alter synthesis, release, reuptake, or metabolism of neurotransmitter</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
3
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what is acetylcholine

  • major neurotransmitter in the brain and peripheral nervous system


4
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acetylcholine is formed from ___ and ___ by ___

acetylcholine is formed from choline and acetyl CoA by ChAT

<p>acetylcholine is formed from <strong>choline </strong>and <strong>acetyl CoA</strong> by <span style="color: blue;"><strong>ChAT</strong></span></p>
5
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what are examples of neurons that release ACh

  • some in CNS

  • the first neuron that exists the central nervous system

    • motor neurons on spinal cords

    • all preganglionic neurons of autonomic nervous system

  • all postganglionic parasympathetic neurons


6
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what degrades acetylcholine

  • broken down quickly by acetylcholinesterase on the postsynaptic membrane in synaptic cleft


7
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what are the types of acetylcholine receptors

  • nicotinic receptor

  • M receptor


8
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describe the nicotinic receptor

  • ionotropic channel

    • ligand gated channel

    • immediate flux of ions and action potential

    • response is fast and short-lived


<ul><li><p>ionotropic channel</p><ul><li><p>ligand gated channel</p></li><li><p>immediate flux of ions and action potential</p></li><li><p><strong>response is fast and short-lived</strong></p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
9
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mnemonic for nicotinic receptor

  • Nicotinic NOW


10
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describe where nicotinic receptors are found

  • on motor end plates

    • tell skeletal muscles to contract and move

  • brain

    • regulate memory, attention, and mood


11
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describe muscarinic receptors

  • metabotropic receptor

    • G-protein enzyme receptors

    • not direct and slow

    • response will last longer


<ul><li><p>metabotropic receptor</p><ul><li><p>G-protein enzyme receptors</p></li><li><p>not direct and slow</p></li><li><p>response will last longer</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
12
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where are muscarinic receptors founds

  • synapse of neuroeffector cells in autonomic division to non-neuronal cells targeting tissues (smooth muscle, cardi


<ul><li><p>synapse of <strong>neuroeffector </strong>cells in <strong>autonomic </strong>division to non-neuronal cells targeting tissues (smooth muscle, cardi</p></li></ul><p></p>
13
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what are the antagonists of muscarinic receptors

  • atropine


14
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In the PNS, ___ is always released by the first neuron that exits the central nervous sytem

acetylcholine

15
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what is myasthenic gravis

  • autoimmune attack at nicotinic receptors

  • muscle weaknesses

  • treated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors


<ul><li><p>autoimmune attack at nicotinic receptors</p></li><li><p>muscle weaknesses</p></li><li><p>treated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors</p></li></ul><p></p>
16
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describe neurotransmitters that are biogenic amines

  • end in -ine or -in

  • contain an amino group


17
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what are examples of amine neurotransmitters

  • catecholamines

    • dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine

  • serotonin

  • histamine


<ul><li><p>catecholamines </p><ul><li><p>dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine</p></li></ul></li><li><p>serotonin</p></li><li><p>histamine</p></li></ul><p></p>
18
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what are catecholamines

  • dopamine

  • norepinephrine

  • epinephrine


<ul><li><p>dopamine</p></li><li><p>norepinephrine</p></li><li><p>epinephrine</p></li></ul><p></p>
19
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what are catecholamine made up of

tyrosine

<p>tyrosine</p>
20
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what is serotonin made up of

  • tryptophan


<ul><li><p>tryptophan</p></li></ul><p></p>
21
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what are histamines made up of

  • histidine


22
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how many enzymes involved in synthesis of catecholamines from….

  • tyrosine

    • 3 enzyme


<ul><li><p>tyrosine</p><ul><li><p>3 enzyme</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
23
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how is synthesis of catecholamines stopped

  • reuptake and degradation by

    • COMT

    • MAO


24
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Mnemonic for things that reuptake catecholamines

  • Mao (MAO) Zedong was communist (COMT)


<ul><li><p>Mao (MAO) Zedong was communist (COMT)</p></li></ul><p></p>
25
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what are dopamine receptors

  • G-protein

    • activators (D1)

    • inhibitors (D2)


26
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where is dopamine found

  • found in heart, lung, and kidney

  • in brain

    • important for reward, attention, and addiction


27
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what do cocaine and methamphetamines do in terms of dopamine

  • block dopamine reuptake

  • enhance dopamine release


28
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parkinson’s disease is a result of…

loss of dopamine receptors in substantia nigra leads to…

29
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what releases norepinephrine

  • released by sympathetic postganglionic neurons


30
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what releases epinephrine

adrenal medulla

31
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what are the receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine

  • adrenergic receptors


<ul><li><p>adrenergic receptors</p></li></ul><p></p>
32
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<p>describe what is going on here</p>

describe what is going on here

  • somatic nervous system

    • motor nerve

      • nicotinic receptor

  • autonomic nervous system

  • peripheral nervous stem

    • post synaptic membrane

      • nicotinic receptor

    • non-neuronal effector cell (smooth/cardiac muscle)

      • muscarinic receptor

  • sympathetic nervous system

    • adrenergic receptors


<ul><li><p><strong><em>somatic nervous system</em></strong></p><ul><li><p>motor nerve</p><ul><li><p><span style="color: rgb(161, 85, 24);"><strong>nicotinic receptor</strong></span></p></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><p><strong><em>autonomic nervous system</em></strong></p></li><li><p><span style="color: green;"><strong>peripheral nervous stem</strong></span></p><ul><li><p>post synaptic membrane</p><ul><li><p><span style="color: rgb(155, 64, 21);"><strong>nicotinic receptor</strong></span></p></li></ul></li><li><p>non-neuronal effector cell (smooth/cardiac muscle)</p><ul><li><p><span style="color: rgb(165, 53, 186);"><strong>muscarinic receptor</strong></span></p></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul><li><p><span style="color: blue;"><strong>sympathetic nervous system</strong></span></p><ul><li><p><span style="color: red;"><strong>adrenergic receptors</strong></span></p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
33
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what is serotonin inhibited by

  • reuptake

  • monoamine oxidase (MAO)


34
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where is serotonin found

  • throughout the CNS

    • sleep/waking and mood centers in CNS and

  • import in peripheral motor and sensory pathways


35
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what is the most excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS

  • glutamate


36
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what are the two glutamate receptors on postsynaptic membranes

  • AMPA receptors

  • NMDA


37
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the majority of glutamate receptors are… ionotropic/metabotropic

  • ionotropic


<ul><li><p>ionotropic </p></li></ul><p></p>
38
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what kind of receptor is AMPA receptor

  • ligand-gated ion channel


<ul><li><p>ligand-gated ion channel</p></li></ul><p></p>
39
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what kind of receptor is NMDA receptor

  • G-protein coupled ionotropic glutamate receptor


<ul><li><p><span style="color: blue;"><strong><u>G-protein coupled </u></strong></span>ionotropic glutamate receptor</p></li></ul><p></p>
40
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while NMDA is an ionotropic receptor, what 2 things does it need to function?

  • removal of Mg+2 plug via depolarization

    • at resting state

      • Mg+2 is attracted to intracellular negativity

        • electrostatic attraction pulled it into the pore and holds it there

    • depolarization

      • intracellular positivity weakened Mg+2 plug


  • removal of Mg+2 increases permeability of Ca+

    • Ca+ acts as secondary messenger


<ul><li><p>removal of Mg+2 plug via depolarization</p><ul><li><p>at resting state</p><ul><li><p>Mg+2 is attracted to intracellular negativity</p><ul><li><p>electrostatic attraction pulled it into the pore and holds it there</p></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><p>depolarization</p><ul><li><p>intracellular positivity weakened Mg+2 plug</p></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><p></p><ul><li><p>removal of Mg+2 increases permeability of Ca+</p><ul><li><p>Ca+ acts as secondary messenger</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
41
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activation of NMDA receptor is linked to…

long term potentiation

  • long lasting strengthening connections between neurons

    • underlies learning and memory


42
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describe excitotoxicity in NMDA receptors

  • too much Ca+2 influx during excessive activation

    • results in neuronal death

    • associated with epilepsy, stroke, and brain trauma


43
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what are the 8 steps of long term potentiation

  1. high frequency AP in presynaptic cells

  2. secretion of glutamate

  3. glutamate binds to both AMPA and NMDA

  4. Na+ entry via AMPA receptors depolarizes postsynaptic membrane

  5. Depolarization unclogs Mg+2 ions out of NMDA

  6. Influx of more Na+ and Ca+2 entry activates second messenger system

  7. increase in glutamate receptors and sensitivity of postsynaptic cells

  8. increase in glutamate synthesis in presynaptic cells


<ol><li><p>high frequency AP in presynaptic cells</p></li><li><p>secretion of glutamate</p></li><li><p>glutamate binds to both <span style="color: red;"><strong>AMPA </strong></span>and <span style="color: blue;"><strong>NMDA</strong></span></p></li><li><p>Na+ entry via AMPA receptors depolarizes postsynaptic membrane</p></li><li><p>Depolarization unclogs Mg+2 ions out of <span style="color: blue;"><strong>NMDA</strong></span></p></li><li><p>Influx of more Na+ and Ca+2 entry activates second messenger system</p></li><li><p>increase in glutamate receptors and sensitivity of postsynaptic cells </p></li><li><p>increase in glutamate synthesis in presynaptic cells</p></li></ol><p></p>
44
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when does long term potentiation happen

  • after a high frequency train of action potentials at the axon terminal

    • recruitment of glutamate receptors results in extends excitation over prolonged time periods


45
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what is the main inhibitor of the brain

  • GABA


46
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what is GABA synthesized from

  • glutamate


47
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what are the two GABA receptor subtypes

  • GABAa

    • hyperpolarization via chloride

  • GABAb

    • hyperpolarization via potassium


48
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how do GABAa receptors function

  • inhibitory neurotransmitter

    • opens chloride channels to hyperpolarize membrane


49
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how do GABAb receptors functions

  • open potassium channels and hyperpolarize the membrane


50
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what is the main inhibitor in the spinal cord and brain stem

  • glycine


51
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how does glycine work

  • inhibition

    • opens chloride channels and hyperpolarizes membrane


52
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what is an antagonist of the glycine receptor

  • strychnine


53
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describe neuropeptide hormones

  • short chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds that act as signaling molecules


54
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how are neuropeptides formed

  • cell makes longer, inactive protein chain precursor in the cell body

    • cell physically ships precurser down axon via axonal transport to the terminal


55
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how are neuropeptides activated

  • upon arrival in the terminal, enzyme proteases cut it into the final neuropeptide


<ul><li><p>upon arrival in the terminal, enzyme proteases cut it into the final neuropeptide </p></li></ul><p></p>
56
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neuropeptides are ___(speed)___ because…

  • slow because they must be transported down the axon


57
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how are neuropeptide actions terminated

  • terminated by

    • proteolysis

    • diffusion out of synaptic cleft


58
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what is an agonist of opioid receptors

  • morphine


<ul><li><p>morphine </p></li></ul><p></p>
59
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what is an antagonist of opioid receptors

  • naloxone


<ul><li><p>naloxone </p></li></ul><p></p>
60
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describe gaseous neurotransmitters

  • act as neuromodulators

    • diffusible across all cell membranes


61
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what are examples of gaseous neurotransmitters

  • nitric oxide

  • carbon monoxide

  • hydrogen sulfate


62
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what type of receptors do gaseous neurotransmitters use

  • none

    • freely diffusible across cell membranes


63
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nitric oxides and carbon monoxide are hypothesized to be…

  • retrograde messengers

    • postsynaptic cell impacts presynaptic cell


64
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what are purinergic receptors

  • receptors that respond to purines

    • adenosine and ATP


65
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What are the two main classes of purinergic receptors

  • P1

    • respond to adenosine

    • excitatory

  • P2

    • excitatory

    • respond to ATP