Studied by 15 people
APFC stands for aims, procedure, findings and conclusion.
What is social identity theory?
The theory that an individual’s sense of who they are is developed based on group membership and shared between other members of the group. Leads to formation of in-groups and out-groups.
Who investigated social identity theory?
Tajfel and Turner (1979)
What study supports social identity theory?
Tajfel (1970)
Tajfel (1970) APFC:
A: To investigate the minimal conditions under which discrimination between social groups could be brought about.
Procedure: 48 schoolboys (14 -15 years) randomly allocated (flip of a coin) to either a 'Klee group' or to a 'Kandinsky group'. They were led to believe that the groups had been allocated based on preferences for a painting.
The boys were then asked to privately allocate points to both teams. They could give their team or the other team more points, or give both the same.
F: They chose maximising profit for their own group over maximising profit for all.
Evidence of blatant discrimination associated with the categorisation into apparently irrelevant social group. Categorizing yourself into an in-group creates a positive valued social identity.
What is meant by reciprocal determinism?
A person’s behaviour is influenced by personal factors and the social environment (Bandura).
In-group vs out-group bias
In-group bias: showing preference for people within your group.
Out-group bias: automatically disliking people who are not within your group.
What are the four processes associated with social identity theory?
Social categorisation- sorting into ‘in‘ and ‘out‘ groups
Social identification- identifying strongly with an in-group and adopts the norms/attitudes of its other members
Social comparison- favourably comparing your group to out groups
Positive distinctiveness- motivation to show that the ‘in‘ group is superior to ‘out‘ groups
What is social cognitive theory?
The theory that behaviour and social norms are learned through observation of others. These behaviours are acquired, maintained and changed depending on social context.
Origins of social cognitive theory
Social learning theory developed in the 1960s by Albert Bandura
Became known as social cognitive theory in 1986
What are the four conditions of SCT that influence the likelihood of behaviour replication represented by ARRM?
Attention (paying attention to a model), Retention (remembering what the model did), Reproduction (the capacity, physical ability, skills or tools to reproduce the behaviour), Motivation to carry out the behaviour (including presence of reward or punishment)
Which factors can influence an observer’s attention to a model.
Whether the observer likes/respects the model, whether the behaviour is consistent, whether the observer perceives a similarity between themself and the model, and whether the model stands out
What is meant by vicarious reinforcement?
Learning through observation of the consequences of actions for other people. When a model receives reinforcement, it is as though the observer had received the reinforcement themself.
What is meant by self-efficacy?
Someone’s belief in their own ability to accomplish a task. It is one of the conditions necessary for replication of behaviour.
Which study can be used to support social cognitive theory?
Odden and Rochat (2004)
Bandura et al (1961) APFC:
A: To investigate whether aggression can be learned through observation and imitation.
P: 36 boys and 36 girls were tested through observation for their levels of ‘everyday‘ aggression and put into a matched pairs design. They were shown a male or female adult model exhibiting violent, or peaceful behaviour towards a Bobo doll, and then they were put in the room with the same doll and monitored/scored for aggression.
F: The highest replication of the aggressive behaviour was seen in the group of male children who observed a male model.
C: Social learning had taken place, and similarity (gender) to role models had apparently played a role.
Define aggression
“Spoken or physical behaviour that is threatening or invokes harm to someone or something.“
Define culture
The set of ideas, beliefs, attitudes and traditions that we share with a large group that gives us a sense of identity
Surface culture vs deep culture
Surface culture: explicit, visible elements (clothes, music, etc)
Deep culture: invisible, implicit elements (beliefs, values, attitudes)
What is enculturation?
The process of learning and maintenance of appropriate behaviours and norms of our own culture.
What is acculturation?
The process by which someone (eg. a migrant) comes into contact with another culture and begins to adopt the norms and behaviours of that culture
How does enculturation occur?
Direct tuition, participatory learning, SCT (learning through observation)
What study can be used for enculturation?
Odden and Rochat (2004)
Odden and Rochat (2004) APFC:
A: To study the role of observational learning on development of cultural norms in Samoa
P: Interviews and observations about 28 children in a single Samoan village (parents have non-interventionist approach to children and learning).
F: Young males spent a lot of time watching adult males fish but no direct tuition took place. Children of around 10 would borrow equipment and fish unsupervised. By 12 most were able to fish on their own. Also 46 12-year-olds completed a multiple-choice test about the chief system and most had a good knowledge despite not being directly taught.
C: Cultural norms do not need to be taught directly, but are learned through active observation in this context. This study supports SCT because values/expectations can be learnt through others without direct teaching.
Linking Odden and Rochat’s findings to Social Cognitive Theory
-For Samoan children enculturation took place through SCT
-Hierarchical culture so children would looks up to/respect adult ‘models‘
-Children had high self-efficacy to retain and reproduce behaviour
-They were motivated to replicate behaviour as they knew they would not learn through adult teaching
-Participatory learning took place
Odden and Rochat’s study was a longitudinal study. What is a longitudinal study?
A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of time.
What are the four acculturation strategies represented by Berry’s model of acculturation?
Integration, Seperation, Assimilation, Marginalisation
Integration
Individuals maintain their heritage culture but interact with other groups and adopt some of the norms of the new culture
Assimilation
Individuals adopt the norms of their new culture and do not maintain their heritage cultural identity
Seperation
Individuals maintain the norms of their heritage culture and do not adopt the norms of their new culture
Marginalisation
Individuals do not maintain their heritage culture, do not interact with other groups and do not adopt the new culture
Which study can be used for acculturation?
Lueck and Wilson (2010)
What is the definition of acculturative stress/culture shock?
The feeling of distress or disorientation experienced by someone when immersed in an unfamiliar set of norms or values.
Lueck and Wilson (2010) APFC:
A: To investigate predictors of culture shock in Asian American immigrants.
P: Representative sample of 2095 Asian Americans of mostly first-generation immigrants (inc. Chinese, Vietnamese and Filipino), and some second-gen. Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews measuring participants’ levels of acculturative stress. They measured impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion and socioeconomic status.
F: 70% found to have acculturative stress according to their score.
C: Low acculturative stress- being bilingual, sharing similar values/beliefs as a family, satisfied with economic opportunities.
How can the findings of Lueck and Wilson’s study link to acculturation?
Levels of acculturative stress associated with which of Berry’s acculturation strategies the individual adopted.
Bilingualism- integration as individuals maintain good relationships with their old and new cultures.
Economic satisfaction- assimilation as it makes the old country looks worse
Negative treatment- separation and marginalisation- high levels of acculturative stress.
Define individualism
Identity is defined by personal characteristics (eg. individual choices and achievements)
Define collectivism
Identity is defined more by the characteristics of the groups to which you belong
Origin of theory of cultural dimensions
Geert Hofstede conducted a survey of 117000 employees of multicultural company IBM, from 40 countries, over ten years
What are the six main cultural dimensions?
Individualism vs collectivism, power distance index, masculinity versus femininity, indulgence vs restraint, long term vs short term, uncertainty avoidance
What is conformity?
The tendency to change how we behave in response to the influence of real or perceived pressure from a majority group
Informational conformity
Occurs because of the desire to be correct
Normative conformity
Occurs because of the desire to be liked/accepted (peer pressure)
What study can be used to support conformity/cultural dimensions?
Berry, 1967
Characteristics of collectivist cultures
Conform more, group goals prioritised over individual goals, privacy is not expected, conformity is valued
Characteristics of individualist cultures
Conform less, individual goals prioritised over group goals, privacy is valued, individuality is valued
Berry (1967) APFC:
A: To see whether conformity levels differ across collectivist and individualist cultures.
P: Participants were 120 each highly individualist Canadian Inuit, Scots as a control, and the collectivist Tenme of Sierra Leone. Each group completed a series of tasks involving matching a line to its correct counterpart.
F: The Tenme had a much higher rate of conformity even when incorrect. The Inuit had a lower rate of conformity than even the Scots.
C: Different cultures have different rates of conformity.
Why were each culture used in Berry’s study?
Tenme: high food-accumulating society, survival depends on sharing the harvest
Inuit: low food-accumulating culture, survival depends on independence
Scots: control group
Which study can be used for effect of culture on cognition?
Kearins (1981)
Kearins (1981) APFC:
A: to investigate cultural differences in memory encoding with visual clues
P: Kearins placed 20 objects on a board divided into 20 squares. Participants (44 each white vs indigenous Australians) were told to study the board for 30 secs and reconstruct the original arrangement. There were four variations: artificial same to man-made different.
F: On all four tasks the indigenous children outperformed the white Australian children. White children scored highest on the ‘man-made, different‘ task but IAs were not affected by objects themselves. 75% of IAs made at least one perfect performance.
C: Survival of Indigenous Australians in harsh deserts had rewarded their ability to encode and store info. Survival needs may shape ways of encoding memories.
Why did Kearins (1981) use Indigenous Australian children in the study?
-Indigenous Australians’ survival depends on navigating vast unmapped desert stretches and remembering locations of water and food sources
-Hunting and gathering require a good sense of spatial awareness
-This is thought to have been a significant factor in the memory task
How do stereotypes form?
Minority groups stand out, negative behaviour stands out… overlap between the two creates an illusory correlation reinforced through media and personal experience.
Which study can be used for formation of stereotypes?
Hamilton and Gifford (1976): see cognitive approach set for APFC
Which study can be used for the effect of stereotypes?
Spencer (1999) or Shih (1999) [can also use Lewis (1990)- see cognitive approach flashcards for Lewis]
Shih et al (1999) APFC:
Aim: to investigate stereotype susceptibility
P: 46 undergraduate Asian-American women at Harvard university were given a 12-question maths test after having been primed either with questions relating to heritage, gender, or something irrelevant. After the 20-minute test the researchers scored the participants’ tests.
F: Ethnicity condition- 54% correct answers, control condition- 49% correct answers, gender condition- 43% correct answers
C: stereotype susceptibility (or ‘threat‘) caused women in the gender condition to underperform
Spencer (1999) APFC:
A: to see whether stereotype threat would cause a stereotyped group to underperform
P: men and women that performed equally highly in maths were given a difficult test to complete
F: women scored lower on the test despite being of the same maths ability
C: Stereotypes can impede intellectual performance
Shih et al (1999) critical thinking
Small sample size
Researchers did not subsequently ask participants whether they were aware of the stereotypes, although replications have added this condition to results being included
Not generalisable to other ethnic (or otherwise minority) groups other than Asians in the USA
Conducted on psychology students
Which study can be used for culture and its influence on cognition?
Kulkofsky et al (2011)
Kulkovfsky et al (2011) APFC:
A: To investigate whether FBMs are found across all cultures
P: 274 adults from China, Germany, Turkey, UK and US
P: Five minutes to recall as many memories as they could of public events having occurred in their lifetime. Then they did a memory questionnaire like Brown+Kulik’s (1977) asking where, when, how, what and who. Then questions about the importance of the event to them personally.
F: In collectivist cultures like China, personal importance and intensity of emotion played less of a role in FBM formation than in individualist culture. However national importance was equally liked to FBM formation across cultures.
Note 
Flashcard (44)