Earth Science Regents Review

Redshift

Proves the universe is expanding because light waves from distant galaxies are stretching out.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

Leftover radiation and heat from the Big Bang found everywhere in space.

Nuclear Fusion

The process that powers stars. It smashes light elements (Hydrogen) into heavier ones (Helium).

Heliocentric Model

The correct solar system model where the Sun is in the center and planets orbit it.

Geocentric Model

The old, wrong model where Earth was stationary in the center.

Rotation

Earth spinning on its axis once every 24 hours.

Coriolis Effect

Proof of rotation. Winds and ocean currents curve to the right in the Northern Hemisphere because Earth spins.

Foucault Pendulum

Proof of rotation. A heavy swinging pendulum appears to change direction over time because the Earth is spinning beneath it.

Revolution

Earth orbiting the Sun once every 365 days (1 year).

Constellation Changes

Proof of revolution. We see different stars at night in the winter than we do in the summer because Earth has moved to the other side of the Sun.

Convection Application

Warm air/magma rises because it is less dense. Cool air/magma sinks because it is more dense.

Orographic Effect (Rain Shadow)

The windward side of a mountain gets hit by wind, forces air up to cool and rain, creating plants. The leeward side gets sinking, dry air, creating a desert.

Porosity Rule

If soil particles are well-sorted, particle size does not change porosity. A jar of large marbles and a jar of tiny beads have the exact same percentage of open space.

Internal Arrangement of Atoms

The ultimate answer to mineral questions. This atomic pattern is responsible for a mineral's hardness, cleavage, and crystal shape.

Climate and Weathering

Warm and humid climates cause fast chemical weathering (like rust or dissolving). Cold and humid climates cause fast physical weathering (like frost wedging/ice cracking rocks).

V-Shaped Valley

Carved out by rivers/running water. Sediments left behind are round and sorted.

U-Shaped Valley

Carved out by glaciers/moving ice. Sediments left behind are scratched, jagged, and unsorted (moraines).

Law of Superposition

In flat rock layers, the oldest layer is always at the bottom and the youngest is at the top.

Intrusion / Fault Age

An igneous intrusion (magma melting through rock) or a fault line (crack) is always younger than the rock layers it cuts across.

Index Fossil Criteria

To be a useful index fossil, the creature must have lived over a wide geographic area but only existed for a short period of time.

Unconformity

A wavy line in a rock layer diagram that represents a gap in geological time caused by erosion wiping a layer away.

Half-Life Consistency

Nothing can change a half-life. Heating a rock, crushing it, or changing the pressure will never change how fast a radioactive element decays.