Exam 3 Gen Psych FSU

cognition

the mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking

analogical representations

mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the objects

symbolic representation

attract mental representations; usually are numbers, words, or ideas. No relationship to physical objects

schemas

knowledge of how to behave in certain settings - give us a script

-common situations have consistent rules

-people have specific roles within situational contexts

issues with schemas

potentially reinforce stereotypes - allow for fast processing about members or specific groups

-reinforce sexist or racist beliefs

decision making

attempting to select the best alternative from among several options

-involves assessing risks

problem solving

finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal

normative decision theory

define how people should make decisions

-what yields the largest gain?

-expected utility theory: make decisions by considering the alternatives and choosing the most desirable

descriptive decision theory

attempts to predict how people actually make choices, not to define ideal choices

heuristics

-fast and efficient strategies used in decision making

-occur unconsciously

-beneficial in making quick decisions

-can result in biases

anchoring

the tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

availability heuristic

judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind

representativeness heuristic

tendency to place a person or object in a category if the person or object is similar to our prototype for that category

affective heuristic

the tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future

-overestimate positive events and underestimate negative events

paradox of choice

the observation that more choices can lead to less satisfaction

mental sets

problem solving strategies that have worked in the past

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

language

A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.

morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language

-prefixes and suffixes

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

-building blocks of speech

-English has approx. 40

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

language development

-Birth-3 months - cries, grunts, and breathes

-3-5 months - coo and laugh

-5-7 months - babbling by using consonants and vowels

-7-8 months - using syllables

-By 1st years - first words

surface structure

sounds and order of words

deep structure

the meaning of a sentence

Chomsky's belief

humans are born with a language acquisition device that has universal structure

-people automatically and unconsciously transform surface structure into deep structure

phonics

the sounds that letters make and the letters that are used to represent sounds

-teaches association between letters and phonemes

whole language

a method of teaching reading in English that emphasizes learning the meanings of words and understanding how words are connected in sentences

intelligence

ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges

psychometric approach

a way of studying intelligence that emphasizes analysis of how people perform on standardized tests

achievement tests

tests designed to assess peoples current level of skill and knowledge

aptitude task

predict what tasks people will be good at in the future

Alfred Binet

was the first person to measure intelligence; developed a psychometric approach to assessing intelligence in children; Binet-Simon intelligence scale

mental age

child's intellectual standing compared to same-ages peers

intelligence quotient

divide a child's mental age by the child's chronological age and multiple by 100

David Weschler

developed an intelligence test for adults

general intelligence (g)

the idea that one general factor underlies intelligence

-people who are good at one factor are typically good at all factors

fluid intelligence

ability to process info, understand relationships, and think logically in complex circumstances

crystallized intelligence

reflects knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

human development

-prenatal period: begins with conception and ends with birth

-infancy: begins with birth and lasts until 18-24 months

-childhood: begins at the end of infancy and last until 11-14

-adolescence: begins at the end of childhood and lasts until 18-21 years

-adulthood: last stage

zygote

when sperm unites with egg

embryo

from 2 weeks to 2 months - organs and internal systems form

fetus

all organs are formed and heart begins to beat

brain development

1. areas within the brain mature and become functional

2. brain regions learn to communicate with one another

-myelination: insulates nerve fibers - increase speed at which fibers transmit signals

exposure to teratogens

agents that may harm the embryo of fetus

-fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) - leads to intellectual disability and cognitive and behavioral issues

brain plasticity

brain organizes itself in response to environmental experiences

-"use it or lose it" aka synaptic pruning

motor development

-Grasping reflex

-Rooting reflex

-Sucking reflex

infant memory

use new info to build on what they already know

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

attachment

a strong, intimate, emotional connection between two people that persists over time and access circumstance

-infants need nurture from adults for survival

-infant attachment behaviors motivate adult attention

seperation anxiety

when infants cannot see or are separated from their attachment figures they become distressed

secure attachment

infant is confident to play in unfamiliar environment when the caregiver is present and is comforted by caregiver during times of distress

insecure avoidant

shows insecurity by avoiding the caregiver

insecure ambivalent

Shown by a child being clingy and taking a long time to calm down after separation protest

piaget's stages of development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants:

- differentiate itself from others

- Recognizes self as agent of action and begin to act intentionally, ex: pulls a string to set a mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make noise

- Achieve object permanence: realizes that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child:

- learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words

- thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others

- Classifies objects by a single feature, ex: groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of color

- laws of conservation of quantity: even if a substances appearance changes, its quantity remains unchanged

- centration: only able to focus on one aspect of a problem

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children:

- can think logically about objects and events

- achieves conservation of number (age 7), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

- classifies objects by several features and can order them in a series along a single dimension, such as size

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people:

- begin to think logically about abstract concepts and test hypotheses systematically

- become concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

challenges to Piaget's theory

-Differing cognitive strategies or skills among individuals

-The role of social and cultural differences

-Children move back and forth b/t stages

-Not all adults reach the formal operational stage

theory of mind

ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence behavior

-develops during first 5 years of life

puberty

onset of sexual maturity that marks the beginning of adolescence

adolescent growth spurt

The period of accelerated growth during puberty, involving rapid increases in height and weight

Erikson's Eight Stages of Development

trust vs mistrust,

autonomy vs shame and doubt,

initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion,

intimacy vs isolation,

generativity vs stagnation,

integrity vs despair

trust v mistrust

Infant (birth to 18 months)

-Important event: feeding

-Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection - a lack of this will lead to mistrust

autonomy v shame and doubt

Early childhood (2 to 3 years)

-Important even: toilet training

-Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence

-Success leads to feeling of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt

initiative v guilt

Preschool (3 to 5 years)

-Important event: exploration

-Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment

-Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose

-Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt

industry v inferiority

School age (6 to 11 years)

-Important event: school

-Children need to cope with new social and academic demands

-Success leads to a sense of competence while failure results in feelings of inferiority

identity v role confusion

Adolescence (11 to 18 years)

-Important event: social relationships

-Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity

-Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself

-Failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self

intimacy v isolation

Young adulthood (19 to 40 years)

-Important event: relationships

-Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people

-Success leads to strong relationships

-Failure results in loneliness and isolation

generativity v stagnation

Middle adulthood (40 to 65 years)

-Important event: work and parenthood

-Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people

-Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishments

-Failure results in shallow

ego integrity v despair

Maturity (65 to death)

-Important event: reflection on life

-Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment

-Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom

-Failure results in regret. Bitterness, and despair

peers help shape the self

- Compare strengths and weaknesses to those in our peer group

- Form friendships with those whose values are similar to our own

Parents Help shape the self

specific behaviors, social development, values, attitudes, religious beliefs

adulthood

adults are affected by life transitions

-college, career, marriage, children, death

physical changes occur from early to middle adulthood

-physical fitness peak in 20's

-after that you lose muscle mass, bone density, eyesight, and hearing

marriage

•Married people tend to be happier and healthier than single or cohabitating people

•Effective communication helps keep marriages happy

-Especially after the birth of a child

late adulthood

•Transition to old-age can be satisfying

-Report being happier than younger adults

•As we age we experience a decline in working memory and processing speed

-Retain our general intelligence