ANTHRCUL 101 Exam 2

ethnicity

derived from language, history, cultural traditions. Can be chosen unlike race

convergent evolution

process of adapting to the same environmental forces in similar ways EX. Birds + bats

homologies

similarities in species jointly inherited from a common ancestor

analogies

similarities between species due to adapting in similar ways

sexual dimorphism

pronounced and anatomical and behavioral differences between males and females. Terrestrial species have greater sexual dimorphism (some male and female fish look very similar)

brachiation

branch swinging (performed by monkeys)

shared primate adaptations

*anticipate a fill-in-the-blank on this: (1)Grasping abilities,

(2)transition from smell to sight- eyes used more than nose to learn about environment,

(3)transition from nose to hand- touch is used more than nose to learn about things,

(4)increased brain complexity,

(5)increased parental investment,

(6)sociality

arboreal

tree living, more likely to speciate (form a new species) due to forests changing more often than the ground. Form smaller groups: parents + children

terrestrial

ground dwelling. Larger social unit: troop.

traits of New World monkeys

arboreal, prehensile tails (ability to grab things with tail)

trait of Old World monkeys

both arboreal and terrestrial

prehensile tail

tails that can grasp

hominid

group consisting of all modern and extinct Great Apes

hominin

the group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species and all our immediate ancestors (all members of the human lineage)

Differences between humans and primates

humans do the following: sharing and cooperation, mating and kinsman ship, language and communication

bipedalism

walking upright (began with Ardipithecus Kadabba)

foramen magnum

hole at the base of the skull through which spinal cord enters (location used to determine whether a species was more bipedal or quadrupedal)

connection between dentition and diet

fire allowed teeth to shrink because fire made food easier to eat (cooked food)

interconnection between biological change and culture

fire made teeth smaller,

pelvis size became larger with bipedalism as the hips had to support more weight, birth became easier,

Original people in Africa barely ate dairy because hurt their stomach due to the fact they did not have the gene lactase to digest dairy

Places that domesticated mammals, cows and goats, began to eat more dairy, These people have evolved the ability to digest lactose

Ardipithecus

ground floor root of humanity.

Kadabba (5.8 MYA): oldest hominin, (bipedal)

Ramidus (4.4 MYA, ex. Ardi): ancestral to Australopithecus, discovery pushed back existence of bipedeal locomotion.

Australopithecus

Anemisis (4.2-3.9 MYA).

Afarensis (3.8-3 MYA) East Africa. EX. Lucy. Gave rise to all hominins that came after. Hominin with some ape-like features such as facial, cranium, canines. Legs + pelvis more human, footprints show upright walking.

Africanus (3-2 MYA) gracile Australopithecus: smaller and more slender

Paranthropus

(larger and heavier)

Boisei (2.3-1.4 MYA)

Robustus (1.9-1 MYA)

Genus Homo

Habilis (1.9-1.4 MYA) made some tools themselves. Oldowan pebble tools (sharp flakes struck from cores). Considered generalistic

Erectus (1.9 MYA - 300,000 YA) moves beyond Africa to Europe and Asia, made more complex tools (Acheulian tools) with more specific purposes ex. Hand ax. Teeth shrank due to fire.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens (40,000 YA) tool making evolved into blades and composite tools- tools with different parts ex. Bows and arrows, harpoons. Cave paintings of hunted animals

Neandertals and their place in the hominin line

Considered archaic homo sapiens. 130,000-28,000 YA, used Mousterian tools: variety of flint tools for different purposes, larger cranial capacity (bigger skulls but not smarter) than humans.

Hominin chronology

ARDIPITHECUS KADABBA

ARDIPITHECUS RAMIDUS

AUSTRALOPITHECUS ANAMENSIS

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICANUS

PARANTHROPUS BOISEI

PARANTHROPUS ROBUSTIS = HOMO HABILIS

HOMO ERECTUS

ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS

NEANDERTALS

ANATOMICALLY MODERN HUMANS

HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS

Upper Paleolithic cave-painting

- seen as magical or ritual as done in out of the way caves,

- historical record purposes,

- attempt to control animal reproduction through magic ("Ceremonies of Increase"); response to animal scarcity

tool traditions

- Oldowan pebble tools: sharp flakes struck from cores, considered generalistic (Homo Habilis)

- Acheulian tools: more complex tools w/ more specific purposes such as a hand ax (Homo Erectus)

- Mousterian tools: variety of flint tools used for different purposes (Neandertals)

relative dating methods

date relative to something else. EX. Stratigraphy (analysis of relative order of layers of rock)

absolute dating methods

Age of something in and of itself. EX. Carbon 14 dating, molecular dating

stratigraphy

accumulation of layers of sediment: won't give you exact age but can give relative to others based on the layers

biases in the fossil record

(1)climate (ex. Differential preservation- some will form fossils, some will decay), (2)geologic (some fossils aren't exposed and that limits discovery- exposure differences)

(3)temporal (older fossils are less likely to be in a condition to be studied or found) biases. Fossil formation only happens when the item fossilized is buried in sediment. Ex. past environment, present day climate, plants prevent erosion from turning up fossils

Hunting and gathering/foraging

relies on food naturally available. Gathering provides majority of food and is more reliable. Characteristics: mobility (flexible boundaries), egalitarianism (social equality), Food sharing and cooperation, social distinctions based on age (ex. Older are wiser)

Horticulture

production of plants without technology. Characteristics: fields need to lie fallow after being cultivated since soil loses nutrients and no tools to fix that. Slash and Burn cultivation is used- cut down a field, then set fire to the brush as the ashes create a fertilizer

Agriculture

same piece of land cultivated permanently. Characteristics: plowing (brings up nutrients so fields can continually be used), domesticated animals, irrigation.

Pastoralism

depends on herds of domesticated animals (common in environments too dry for agriculture to work)

market exchange

economy: system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources. Market principle: maximize profit, supply, and demand. Redistribution: goods flow to center for dispersal

Types of reciprocity

reciprocity: exchange between social equals, impacted by closeness of ties and timing/ importance of return.

(1)Generalized reciprocity: altruistic, no expectation of return, close ties (ex. Parent and child).

(2)Balanced Reciprocity: Return of goods of equal value within specified time, more social distance between trading parties. (3)Negative reciprocity: attempt to get something for nothing, better of a bargain, unfriendly/impersonal connection, most social difference

chiefly redistribution

goods flow to the center for dispersal

egalitarianism

social equality, no source of formal authority

Big Man

tribal leader, usually wealthy, position depends on personal attributes and achievements

chief

has formal power, head of the chiefdom, ascribed status

bands

foragers, sociopolitical organization is not complex, small, nuclear families, egalitarian, reciprocity, no formal leadership

tribes

horticulturalists and pastoralists, leader but no central authority, kinship, usually egalitarian, bigger than bands

chiefdom

transitional, hierarchy, chief is head, redistribution, surplus of goods are shared, punishment can be enforced so less violence

states

socioeconomic stratification (non-kin based), subordinate and elite (group differentiation)

potlatch

a competitive feast event within a regional exchange system among the tribes of the North Pacific Coast of North America (considered very wasteful by some)

segmentary lineage organization

series of nested groups that are activated when allegiance is needed (ex. During war conflict) Nuer

slash-and-burn cultivation

cut down a field, then set fire to the brush as the ashes create a fertilizer

transhumance

part of the group moves, but most people stay in the home village (women and children)f . In pastoralism: some move with the animal herds

nomadism

society moves throughout the year. In pastoralism: everyone moves with the animal herds

sodalities

non-kin associated groups (ex. Age, Gender)

affinal kin

related through marriage (ex. Sister-in-law)

consanguineal kin

related through blood

cross-cousins

children of siblings of different sex (a brother's children and a sister's children)

parallel cousins

children of siblings of the same sex (children of sisters/brothers)

bridewealth

gift from husband's family to wife's family to recognize benefits of the bride to their group

dowry

gift from wife's family to husband's family to acknowledge bride as added burden to groom's group

family of orientation

family in which one is born and grows up

family of procreation

family created when one has children

marriage

a social institution that reflects local, social, and cultural realities

matrilineal

descent is traced through women only

matrilocal

residence after marriage is with wife's group

patrilineal

descent is traced through men only

patrilocal

residence after marriage with husband's kin group

lineal kin

related in a direct line (ex. Parents, grandparents)

collateral kin

through linking relative (ex. Siblings, aunts, uncles, cousins)

incest taboo

prohibit sexual relations between "close relatives" (definition varies by society)

endogamy

marry inside of group (ex. Marry same religion or ethnicity)

exogamy

marry outside of group (ex. Marry outside of family)

three attributes of language

(1)Productivity

(2)Displacement

(3)Cultural

(Koko - gorilla that learned ASL)

cultural transmission

learning language from others

productivity

combining signs to make meaningful new expression

displacement

the ability to refer to things that aren't present

nuclear family

a kinship group consisting of parents and children

"ego" (on a kinship chart)

who you, the reader, are in the kin charts

kinship chart symbols

circle is female

triangle is male

= is marriage (line through is divorced), lines down are children

lines across are siblings

line through person means they are dead,

uncolored person is the ego,

first letter of word tells you their relationship to ego with z=sister as the only exception

polygamy

plural marriage (general term)

Polygyny

several wives

polyandry

several husbands

functions of kinship

(1)socialization, transmission of property (inheritance)

(2)transfer of social position (succession)

(3)provide aid

il-rah

tribal road used by Basseri to transport animals in their pastoralist society. Basseri collective schedule-map of where groups will be at specific times of the year; gives Basseri locally and officially recognized rights to certain places and water sources at certain times. It is a customary path in time and space; it is the schedule, different for each group. Grants them rights to a particular land at a specific time

burakumin

stigmatized group in Japan, low social status based on past of "unclean" occupations, lived in certain segregated parts of the city and real estate values went down there. They can be identified using historical registries of where their ancestors lived- because of this harder to get jobs even today

achieved status

statuses that come through choices, actions, efforts, talents, or accomplishments (ex. Senator, college student)

ascribed status

statuses where people have little or no choice about occupying them (ex. Age, sex)

Oprah video clip

it is generally not okay to date within your family in the US society we live in today due to the incest avoidance theories such as biological child abnormality issues, natural disgust, cultural disinterest, disruption, and the need to forge wider alliances

Race: The Power of an Illusion: The Story We Tell

social inequalities were constructed as natural: science was used to build the case of difference, whites became superior as a race as slavery became connected to African Americans, US tried to civilize and assimilate Native Americans

Race: The Power of an Illusion: The House We Live In

there are no subspecies in humans today, stereotypes come about by race, race was built on biological characteristics, discrimination was based off of these stereotypes of different races (racism): ex. Real estate property values fell where African Americans lived, so whites have built an advantage on net worth and wealth due to discrimination

Race is arbitrary and can be changed through time. Race is a social construct and has social consequences

Basseri: adaptive strategies

example- il-rah: nomadic pastoralists, horticulturalism and trade also important, small camps during winter months, physical distance between tents symbolizes social distance

Basseri: sedentarization

lack of male heirs can lead to wealth-induced sedentarization for some households. Impoverished Basseri who likely lost their herd are forced to leave the group to become agricultural laborers, forced to be sedentary

Basseri: "customary strangers"

Nomadic Pastoralists are lost in the modern world. The individualistic nature of the schooling systems clashes with the fact that the basic unit of pastoral life is the household (or group of households). Many societies/organizations also trying to force sedentarization upon them.

Nuer: sociopolitical organization

No centralized political leadership, Kin-based society, Obligation of the kin to help one another, Sudan, Pastoralists

Nuer: kinship

Segmentary lineage organization, Roughly 20 patrilineal clans, In the most minimal groups of lineages is where daily life revolves

Nuer: affiliation

Segmented lineage, leopard skin chief (negotiates conflicts); egalitarian society

Nuer in the U.S.

Programs to help find permanent homes for the Nuer led 4,000 to living in the US , People from churches reach out to the Nuer living in Minnesota and offer them sponsorship so that they can secure their refugee in the US

Minangkabau: matriliny

matrilineal society

Minangkabau: merantau

Voluntary outmigration, taken literally means to go to the rantau (outside the home), became necessary for merchants to take their goods to the rantau after leaving the darat (home)

Tiwi: marriage

everyone is related to everyone, most important kin factor is physical distance, all women must always be married because the spirit of her matriline may impregnate her at any time and every child must have a father- making polygyny popular

Ojibwa: relocation

Following the Great Depression, their economy suffered but rebounded during World War II, They joined other native peoples in moving to urban areas and laboring variously in shipyards, factories, and aircraft plants for the war effort

Ojibwa: government influence

1950s a government relocation program attempted to reduce reservation living (government expenses) by urging Native Americans to migrate to urban areas and assimilate into mainstream American society

Ojibwa: "civilization"

Some experience a feeling of loss at having been raised in cities instead of reservations. Tribal casinos were a main source of support in the effort to curtail the industrial pollution of some Ojibwa territories