MCAT Behavioral Sciences - Social Stratification

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social class

defined as a category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society; identified by the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors of a given slice of society

Social cohesion

the solidarity and sense of connectedness among different social groups and social classes in society

Social stratification

focuses on social inequalities and studies the basic question of who gets what and why

socioeconomic status (SES)

depend on ascribed or achieved status, and causes the emergence of status hierarchies

Ascribed status

derives from clearly identifiable characteristics, such as age, gender, and skin color; involuntary

achieved status

acquired via direct, individual efforts; obtained through hard work or merit

educational attainment

highest degree obtained, or number of years of education completed

Caste and estate systems

stratify by ascribed SES

class systems

stratify by achieved SES

upper class

those who have great wealth, along with recognized reputations and lifestyles, and have a larger influence on society’s political and economic systems; high concentration of prestige and power

middle class

divided into three levels: upper-middle, middle-middle, and lower-middle

upper-middle class

successful business and professional people

middle-middle class

those who have been unable to achieve the upper-middle lifestyle because of educational and economic shortcomings

lower-middle class

those who are skilled and semiskilled workers with fewer luxuries

lower class

people who have lower incomes, and has a greatly reduced amount of sociopolitical power

socioeconomic gradient

proportional improvement in healthcare as one moves up in socioeconomic status

Prestige

the amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea

Power

the ability to affect others’ behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments; based on the unequal distribution of valued resources; defines the relationship between individuals, groups, and social institutions to maintain order, organize economic systems, conduct warfare, and rule over and exploit people

Class consciousness

the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action; By working together as one unit, the proletariat could revolt and take control of the political and economic system, laying the groundwork for a socialist state

false consciousness

misperception of one’s actual position within society; major barrier to class consciousness

anomie

lack of widely accepted social norms and the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society

ex. excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation

Strain theory

focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance

social solidarity

sense of community and social cohesion

Social trust

comes from two primary sources: social norms of reciprocity and social networks

social capital

investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards; benefits one receives from group association

social integration

movement of new or underrepresented populations into a larger culture while maintaining their ethnic identities

social norms of reciprocity

“I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine”; people tend to help those who (will) help them

Social networks

a network of social interactions and personal relationships

situational inequality

socioeconomic (dis)advantage

positional inequality

based on how connected one is within a network and one’s centrality within that network

privilege

inequality in opportunity

cultural capital

benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills

Strong ties

peer group and kinship contacts, which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful

Weak ties

social connections that are personally superficial, but that are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals

intersectionality

compounding of disadvantage seen in individuals who belong to more than one underserved group

social / structural mobility

result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities given proper credentials and experience requirements

ex. the American Dream

Intragenerational mobility

changes in social status that happen within a person’s lifetime

intergenerational mobility

changes in social status from parents to children

Meritocracy

social structure in which intellectual talent and achievement are means for a person to advance up the social ladder

plutocracy

rule by the rich / upper classes

vertical mobility

Upward and downward mobility from one social class to another

Upward mobility

positive change in a person’s social status, resulting in a higher position

Downward mobility

negative change in a person’s social status, wherein they fall to a lower position

Horizontal mobility

change in occupation or lifestyle by an individual that keeps that individual within the same social class

Poverty

defined by low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources; often handed down from generation to generation; defined on its own terms or in comparison to the rest of the population; highly related to geography; form of powerlessness or a sociological and psychological condition of hopelessness, indifference, and distrust

social reproduction

Social inequality can be passed on from one generation to the next

ex. poverty, inherited wealth

structural poverty

“holes” in the structure of society being more responsible for poverty than the actions of any individual

poverty line

derived from the government’s calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life

Social exclusion

arise from a sense of powerlessness when individuals who are poor or otherwise disadvantaged feel segregated and isolated from society; create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect

Spatial inequality

social stratification across territories and their populations; how geography influences social processes

suburbanization

migration pattern of the middle classes to suburban communities

urban decay

a previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time

urban renewal

city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use

gentrification

upper- and middle-class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing the low-SES population

Environmental Justice

Poor living conditions and dangerous environmental conditions can result in an increase in illness and disease

world system theory

categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level

Core nations

focus on higher skills and higher paying productions while exploiting peripheral nations

peripheral nations

lower-skilled productions

Semi-peripheral nations

work toward becoming core nations, while having many characteristics of peripheral nations

Social epidemiology

branch of epidemiology that studies the ways in which health and disease correlate to social advantages and disadvantages

Incidence

number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time

= new cases/population at risk/time

Prevalence

measure of the number of cases of an illness overall, whether new or chronic, per population in a given amount of time

= total cases/total population/time

Morbidity

burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease

mortality

refers to deaths caused by a given disease

welfare state

the system of government that protects the health and well-being of its citizens

second sickness

exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

low-income groups second sickness

more likely to have poorer health, be uninsured, and die younger than middle- or upper-class adults across gender, age, and racial and ethnic boundaries

low-income women are more likely to deliver babies with low birth weights, thereby placing these babies at risk for numerous physical and cognitive problems in life

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders

some of the best health profiles; lower rate of death associated with cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and infant mortality

African Americans

worse health profile in comparison to White Americans; higher rates of death linked to cancer, heart disease, diabetes, drug and alcohol use, infant mortality, and HIV/AIDS

African American males have the lowest life expectancy of any racial or gender category

Hispanic Americans

mixed profile in comparison to White Americans; lower mortality rates attributable to cancer, heart disease, and infant mortality, but higher mortality rates attributable to diabetes, alcohol and drug use, and HIV/AIDS; high mortality rate from influenza, pneumonia, and accidents

American Indians

mixed profile; higher rates of death from diabetes, suicide, alcohol and drug use, and infant mortality, but lower mortality rates from cancer, heart disease, and HIV/AIDS

gender-related health disparities

women have better health profiles than men; More women suffer from infectious and parasitic diseases, digestive problems, respiratory conditions, high blood pressure (hypertension), arthritis, diabetes, and inflammatory bowel diseases (colitis)

Mortality rates from heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory diseases, and diabetes are higher for men; Men are three times more likely to die from accidents, suicide, and homicide; far less likely to seek medical attention; less likely to comply with medical instructions or adhere to medical advice; more likely to come down with diseases that are life threatening

Affordable Care Act (ACA)

2010, attempt in the United States to increase coverage and affordability of insurance for all Americans, and also to reduce the overall costs of healthcare

Medicare and Medicaid

covers patients over the age of 65, those with end-stage renal disease, and those with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) to increase access to healthcare

Medicaid

covers patients who are in significant financial need to increase access to healthcare