Anatomy and Physiology Complete Lecture & Lab Module Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards generated from lecture notes and laboratory modules covering Anatomy, Physiology, Organic Chemistry, Cytology, Tissues, Integumentary System, Skeletal System, and Muscular System.

Systemic Anatomy

The study of the body's structures organized by specific organ systems, such as the cardiovascular or nervous system.

Regional Anatomy

The study of the body's structures focused on specific areas or regions of the body, such as the head or chest.

Cytology

The microscopic study of individual cells and their internal structures.

Histology

The microscopic study of tissues, including their structure, organization, and function.

Embryology

A subdiscipline of developmental anatomy that focuses on structural and functional changes occurring before birth.

Homeostasis

The dynamic state of equilibrium in which relatively stable internal conditions are maintained despite continuous environmental changes.

Receptor (Sensor)

A homeostatic control component that monitors the environment and responds to stimuli by sending input signals to a control center.

Control Center

A homeostatic control component that processes receptor input, sets the variable's set point, and signals an effector.

Effector

A homeostatic control component that receives output from the control center and executes a response to adjust the variable.

Negative Feedback

The primary homeostatic mechanism where the body's response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus, reversing the direction of initial change.

Positive Feedback

A homeostatic control mechanism where the response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus, amplifying the change in the same direction.

Anatomical Position

A standard body reference position where a person stands erect with face, eyes, and feet directed forward, upper limbs at the sides, and palms facing forward.

Ipsilateral

A directional term indicating a location on the same side of the body.

Contralateral

A directional term indicating a location on the opposite side of the body.

Midsagittal Plane

A vertical plane passing through the longitudinal axis that divides the body into equal right and left halves.

Dura Mater

The thick, tough, outermost meningeal membrane closest to the skull and vertebrae that encloses and protects the central nervous system.

Arachnoid Mater

The thin, transparent middle meningeal layer situated between the dura mater and pia mater.

Pia Mater

The delicate innermost meningeal membrane that adheres directly to the contours of the brain and spinal cord and contains blood vessels.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A clear, colorless body fluid located in the subarachnoid space that acts as a lubricant and protective physical cushion for the brain and spinal cord.

Monosaccharides

Simple single-sugar carbohydrates serving as basic building blocks, including glucose, fructose, ribose, deoxyribose, and galactose.

Glycogen

A polysaccharide that serves as the principal storage form of glucose in human muscle tissue and the liver.

Triglycerides

The most common dietary lipids, located in adipose tissue and composed of one glycerol molecule bound to three fatty acid chains.

High Density Lipoprotein (HDL)

Known as good cholesterol, a lipoprotein that exerts a protective effect on the heart by transporting harmful cholesterol out of arteries.

Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)

Known as bad cholesterol, a lipoprotein that promotes blockage or plaque accumulation in arteries, reducing blood flow.

Hydrolase

An enzyme class that catalyzes chemical breakdown reactions through hydrolysis.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

The primary energy carrier of cells that provides immediately usable energy for cellular work.

Acidemia

A condition defined by an arterial blood pH level falling below $7.35$.

Alkalemia

A condition defined by an arterial blood pH level rising above $7.45$.

Buffer

A chemical system, typically consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base, that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added.

Mitochondria

Double-membrane organelles containing cristae and matrix that act as the primary sites of aerobic cellular respiration and ATP generation.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

A membranous network studded with bound ribosomes that synthesizes, folds, and processes proteins intended for membranes, lysosomes, or secretion.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

A tubular membranous organelle lacking ribosomes that synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs and toxins, and stores calcium ions.

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle consisting of stacked cisternae with cis and trans faces that modifies, sorts, packages, and routes proteins and lipids.

Lysosomes

Membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes that digest waste products, worn-out organelles, and foreign particles.

Peroxisomes

Small organelles containing oxidative enzymes that break down fatty acids and convert hazardous hydrogen peroxide ($H_2O_2$) into water and oxygen.

Microvilli

Short, non-motile, finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane supported by microfilaments that increase surface area for cellular absorption.

Cilia

Motile hair-like cellular projections containing a $9+2$ microtubule structural arrangement that sweep fluids or mucus across cell surfaces.

Flagellum

A long, single, whip-like projection composed of a $9+2$ microtubule arrangement that propels a cell, such as a human sperm cell.

Simple Diffusion

A passive transport process in which small, nonpolar molecules move directly across the lipid bilayer down their concentration gradient without ATP.

Facilitated Diffusion

A passive transport process where solutes move down their concentration gradient across a membrane via channel or carrier proteins without ATP.

Osmosis

The passive movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane toward a region of higher solute concentration.

Active Transport

An energy-dependent transport process using carrier proteins (pumps) and ATP to move solutes across a membrane against their concentration gradient.

Isotonic Solution

A solution whose effective solute concentration equals that of the cell interior, resulting in no net change in cell volume.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cytoplasm, causing water to enter the cell and leading to cell swelling or hemolysis.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cytoplasm, causing water to leave the cell and leading to cell shrinkage or crenation.

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis referred to as cell eating, in which a cell engulfs large particles or microorganisms into a phagosome.

Pinocytosis

A form of endocytosis known as cell drinking, involving the non-specific uptake of extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes into tiny vesicles.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

A selective form of endocytosis where specific extracellular ligands bind to cell-surface receptors in coated pits prior to vesicle formation.

Exocytosis

A vesicular transport process where intracellular vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to secrete substances into the extracellular space.

Mitosis

The nuclear division phase of the cell cycle consisting of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase that produces two identical daughter nuclei.

Apoptosis

A programmed, energy-dependent form of cell death characterized by orderly cellular breakdown without provoking inflammation.

Necrosis

Uncontrolled, accidental cell death resulting from severe injury or ischemia, causing cell swelling, membrane lysis, and local inflammation.

Keratinocytes

The predominant cell type in the epidermis that synthesizes keratin to provide mechanical protection and water resistance.

Melanocytes

Epidermal cells located in the stratum basale that synthesize melanin pigment to shield cellular DNA from ultraviolet radiation.

Langerhans Cells

Specialized epidermal dendritic cells residing in the stratum spinosum that function as macrophages to activate immune responses.

Merkel's Cells

Specialized sensory epithelial cells in the epidermis associated with sensory nerve endings that detect light touch and pressure.

Stratum Basale

The deepest epidermal layer anchored to the basement membrane, containing proliferating stem cells that continuously generate new keratinocytes.

Stratum Lucidum

A thin, translucent epidermal layer of dead keratinocytes present only in thick skin regions such as the palms and soles.

Stratum Corneum

The outermost layer of the epidermis, composed of flattened, dead, keratin-filled cells that form the primary physical barrier.

Cyanosis

A bluish or grayish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes caused by inadequate oxygenation of circulating blood.

Erythema

Redness of the skin caused by increased superficial blood flow resulting from inflammation, heat, or irritation.

Jaundice

A yellowish skin discoloration caused by excessive accumulation of bilirubin in the blood.

Merocrine (Eccrine) Glands

Abundant exocrine sweat glands that empty directly onto the skin surface and function primarily in body temperature regulation.

Apocrine Glands

Sweat glands restricted to axillary and anogenital areas that produce a viscous, fatty secretion responsible for body odor when broken down by skin bacteria.

Apoeccrine Glands

Axillary sweat glands featuring high secretion rates that contribute significantly to excessive armpit sweating (axillary hyperhidrosis).

Ceruminous Glands

Modified apocrine glands situated in the external auditory canal that secrete cerumen (earwax) to protect the ear canal.

Anagen Phase

The active growth phase of the hair cycle during which living cells in the hair matrix divide rapidly.

Catagen Phase

The short transitional phase of the hair cycle marked by cessation of growth and shrinking of the hair follicle.

Telogen Phase

The resting phase of the hair cycle in which hair growth stops completely and old hair detaches.

Alopecia Areata

An autoimmune condition characterized by patchy hair loss or total baldness.

Hirsutism

Excessive growth of coarse body hair in females following a male-pattern distribution, usually driven by elevated androgen levels.

Basal Cell Carcinoma

The most common and least malignant form of skin cancer, originating from stratum basale cells.

Melanoma

The most dangerous form of skin cancer, arising from melanocytes, which metastasizes rapidly and resists standard chemotherapy.

Osteoblasts

Bone-building cells derived from osteogenic cells that synthesize unmineralized organic bone matrix (osteoid) and promote calcification.

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells embedded within matrix lacunae that maintain bone tissue integrity and respond to mechanical strain.

Osteoclasts

Large, multinucleated cells responsible for bone resorption and the release of calcium and phosphate into blood circulation.

Intramembranous Ossification

The direct development of bone tissue from embryonic mesenchymal membranes without a preceding cartilage intermediate, forming flat bones of the skull and face.

Endochondral Ossification

The process of bone development in which a hyaline cartilage model synthesized by chondrocytes is systematically replaced by osseous tissue.

Epiphyseal Plate

A band of hyaline cartilage located between the epiphysis and metaphysis of a long bone that allows longitudinal growth during development.

Malleus, Incus, and Stapes

The three auditory ossicles of the middle ear that transmit acoustic vibrations, with the stapes being the smallest bone in the human body.

Atlas (C1)

The first cervical vertebra that articulates superiorly with the occipital condyles of the skull.

Axis (C2)

The second cervical vertebra featuring a prominent upright process, the dens (odontoid process), which acts as a pivot axis for head rotation.

Synarthroses

A functional category of joints defined by a complete lack of movement, such as skull sutures.

Amphiarthroses

A functional category of joints defined by slight mobility, such as the pubic symphysis and intervertebral discs.

Diarthroses

A functional category of joints defined by free mobility, corresponding to structural synovial joints.

Scoliosis

An abnormal lateral curvature of the spinal column.

Kyphosis

An exaggerated posterior curvature of the thoracic vertebral column, commonly referred to as hunchback.

Lordosis

An exaggerated anterior curvature of the lumbar vertebral column, commonly referred to as swayback.

Ankylosis

Severe joint immobility and stiffness resulting from pathological fusion of bones across a joint space.

Excitability (Irritability)

The functional capability of muscle and nervous tissues to receive and respond to chemical or electrical stimuli.

Contractility

The unique functional property of muscle tissue enabling it to shorten forcefully when stimulated.

Extensibility

The property of muscle tissue allowing it to be stretched beyond its resting length without structural damage.

Elasticity

The ability of muscle tissue to recoil back to its original resting length after stretching or contracting.

Endomysium

A delicate layer of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber cell.

Perimysium

A sheath of connective tissue that wraps groups of individual muscle fibers into discrete bundles termed fascicles.

Epimysium

A dense connective tissue layer surrounding an entire skeletal muscle organ.

Aponeurosis

A broad, flattened sheet-like tendon that connects a muscle to adjacent muscles, deep fascia, or bone.

Sarcomere

The basic functional and contractile unit of a myofibril, demarcated from one Z disc (Z line) to the next Z disc.

Actin

The major protein component of thin myofilaments, containing active binding sites for myosin heads.

Myosin

The motor protein component of thick myofilaments featuring globular heads that pull actin filaments during muscle contraction.