Anatomy and Physiology Review: Articulations, Cell Biology, and Skeletal System

Vocabulary flashcards covering articulations, cellular structures, basic biochemistry, and the anatomy and physiology of the skeletal system.

Synarthroses

Immovable joints.

Amphiarthroses

Slightly movable joints.

Diarthroses

Freely movable joints.

Sutures

Immovable fibrous joints found between skull bones that consist of short fibrous tissue with interlocking wavy lines.

Syndesmoses

Fibrous joints where bones are connected by a ligament, utilizing longer connecting tissue than sutures.

Gomphoses

Peg-in-socket fibrous joints found only in teeth, where teeth fit into alveolar sockets and are connected by the periodontal ligament.

Synchondrosis

A cartilaginous joint in which a bar or plate of hyaline cartilage joins bones, such as the epiphyseal plate.

Symphyses

Cartilaginous joints where fibrocartilage connects the articulating surfaces of bones.

Synovial Joints

Joints in which articulating bones are separated by a fluid-filled joint cavity.

Bursae

Flattened sacs lined with synovial membrane containing a thin film of fluid, serving to reduce friction in joints.

Tendon Sheaths

Elongated bursae that wrap completely around a tendon.

Menisci

Discs of fibrocartilage that extend inward in a joint to stabilize it and minimize wear and tear.

Osteoarthritis (OA)

A chronic degenerative joint disease common in the aged where normal movement destroys articular cartilage faster than it is replaced.

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)

An autoimmune joint disease marked by flare-ups and remissions, joint tenderness, and stiffness, occurring $3$ times more often in females.

Gouty Arthritis

A genetic joint disease more common in males where uric acid is deposited in joints in the form of urate crystals.

Plane Joint

A nonaxial synovial joint with flat articular surfaces allowing short gliding movements.

Hinge Joint

A uniaxial synovial joint where a cylindrical projection of one bone fits into a trough of another bone, allowing flexion and extension.

Pivot Joint

A uniaxial synovial joint where a rounded end of one bone protrudes into a sleeve or ring composed of bone or ligaments.

Condyloid Joint

A biaxial synovial joint where an oval articular surface of one bone fits into a corresponding depression on another bone.

Saddle Joint

A biaxial synovial joint where each bone surface has concave and convex areas, offering greater freedom of movement than condyloid joints.

Ball-and-Socket Joint

A multiaxial synovial joint where the spherical head of one bone fits into the cup-like socket of another bone.

Protons

Subatomic particles located in the atomic nucleus with a mass size of $1$ and a positive ($+$) charge.

Neutrons

Subatomic particles located in the atomic nucleus with a mass size of $1$ and a neutral (no) charge.

Electrons

Subatomic particles orbiting around the nucleus in shells with negligible mass size and a negative ($-$) charge.

Ionic Bonds

Chemical bonds formed when one atom donates or loses one or more electrons to another atom that gains them.

Covalent Bonds

Chemical bonds formed when electrons are shared between atoms, which are stronger than ionic bonds.

pH Scale

A scale ranging from $0$ to $14$ measuring hydrogen ion concentration, with a ten-fold difference between each whole number.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment within the body.

Plasma Membrane

A dynamic, semi-permeable cell boundary modeled by the fluid mosaic model that controls the entry and exit of materials.

Glycocalyx

Branching carbohydrate groups attached to lipids or proteins on the cell surface that aid in cell adhesion and function as cell markers.

Nucleolus

A structure located inside the cell nucleus that is involved in the synthesis of ribosomes.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A network of membranous channels studded with ribosomes that produces membrane proteins and secretory proteins.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A network of membranous channels lacking ribosomes that manufactures lipids such as steroids and detoxifies substances.

Mitochondria

Double-membraned, fluid-filled cell organelles known as the powerhouses of the cell that serve as the sites of cellular respiration.

Lysosomes

Membranous sacs containing hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes that break down materials within the cell.

Interphase

The cell cycle period occupying $90\%$ of a cell's lifetime, composed of the $G_1$, S, and $G_2$ phases.

Cytokinesis

The division of the cell cytoplasm beginning in late anaphase and telophase, driven by a contractile ring of microfilaments that creates a cleavage furrow.

Hematopoiesis

The process of blood cell formation that takes place within the red marrow of bones.

Hyaline Cartilage

The most abundant cartilage type in the body, containing collagen fibers and providing support, flexibility, and resilience.

Perichondrium

A layer of dense irregular connective tissue containing blood vessels that surrounds avascular cartilage to supply it with nutrients via diffusion.

Diaphysis

The shaft forming the long axis of a long bone, comprised of a thick collar of compact bone surrounding a medullary cavity.

Epiphysis

The end of a long bone, consisting of outer compact bone and inner spongy bone.

Periosteum

A double-layered membrane covering the exterior of bone, consisting of an outer fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue and an inner osteogenic layer.

Diploë

The internal layer of spongy bone located within flat bones.

Osteoid

The non-living organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts, composed of ground substance and collagen fibers.

Hydroxyapatites

Inorganic mineral salts, mainly calcium and phosphate, comprising $65\%$ of bone mass and responsible for bone hardness.

Osteon

The structural unit of compact bone, also known as the Haversian System, arranged as weight-bearing pillars parallel to the long axis.

Volkmann's Canals

Canals that connect the blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to the Haversian canals and medullary cavity.

Canaliculi

Tiny canals in compact bone that connect lacunae to each other and to the Haversian canal.

Intramembranous Ossification

The process in which bone tissue forms directly from a fibrous membrane to construct flat bones.

Endochondral Ossification

The process in which hyaline cartilage is replaced by bone tissue to construct long bones.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

A hormone released by the parathyroid gland when blood calcium levels drop, stimulating osteoclasts to increase blood calcium levels.

Calcitonin

A hormone released by the extrafollicular cells of the thyroid gland when blood calcium levels increase, inhibiting osteoclasts to lower blood calcium levels.

Wolff's Law

The principle stating that a bone grows or remodels in response to the forces or demands placed upon it.

Comminuted Fracture

A fracture in which the bone breaks into $3$ or more pieces, common in elderly individuals with brittle bones.

Greenstick Fracture

An incomplete fracture where one side of the bone breaks while the other side bends, common in children.

Osteomalacia

A disorder characterized by soft, weak bones resulting from improper or missing mineral deposition.

Rickets

A children's condition caused by calcium and vitamin D deficiencies that results in soft bones, bowed legs, and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage.

Osteoporosis

A bone disorder in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposition, leading to reduced bone mass and light, fragile bones.

Paget's Disease

A disorder marked by excessive and abnormal bone formation and breakdown, leading to high ratios of spongy bone to compact bone and weak, poorly mineralized bones.