MGMT principles of management Chapter 13 Motivation

Motivation

the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal

Needs

the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being

situational constraints

are factors beyond the control of individual employees, such as tools, policies, and resources that have an effect on job performance.

job performance

(Motivation) x (Ability) x (Situational constraints)

The basic model of motivation

in which effort leads to job performance

Motivation

is effort, the degree to which someone works hard to do the job well.

According to Maslow,

needs are arranged in a hierarchy from low (physiological) to high (self-actualization). Within this hierarchy, people are motivated by their lowest unsatisfied need. As each need is met, they work their way up the hierarchy from physiological to self-actualization needs.

different needs theories

suggest different needs categories

Ability

is the degree to which workers possess the knowledge, skills, and talent needed to do a job well.

three well-known needs theories

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs; Alderfer's ERG Theory and McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

suggests that people are motivated by physiological (food and water), safety (physical and economic), belongingness (friendship, love, social interaction), esteem (achievement and recognition), and self-actualization (realizing your full potential) needs.

there are two basic kinds of needs categories.

Lower-order needs and higher-order needs

We always try to hire people who yearn to be master craftspeople,

that is, designers who want to be great designers, not managers of designers; developers who want to master the art of programming, not management."

Lower-order needs

are concerned with safety and with physiological and existence requirements

By contrast, Alderfer

says that people can be motivated by more than one need at a time. Furthermore, he suggests that people are just as likely to move down the needs hierarchy as up, particularly when they are unable to achieve satisfaction at the next higher need level.

higher-order needs

are concerned with relationships (belongingness, relatedness, and affiliation), challenges and accomplishments (esteem, self-actualization, growth, and achievement), and influence (power).

it is important to remember that ability and situational constraints

affect job performance as well.

Alderfer's ERG Theory collapses

Maslow's five needs into three: existence (safety and physiological needs), relatedness (belongingness), and growth (esteem and self-actualization).

Persistence of effort .

is concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort in their jobs before reducing or eliminating those efforts

Studies generally show that higher-order needs

will not motivate people as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied

McClelland argues

that the degree to which particular needs motivate varies tremendously from person to person, with some people being motivated primarily by achievement and others by power or affiliation.

McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

suggests that people are motivated by the need for affiliation (to be liked and accepted), the need for achievement (to accomplish challenging goals), or the need for power (to influence others).

Initiation, direction, and persistence

are at the heart of motivation.

McClelland says that

needs are learned, not innate.

two kinds of rewards

extrinsic and intrinsic

Extrinsic rewards

are tangible and visible to others and are given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors.

Intrinsic rewards

are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. For example, aside from the external rewards management offers for doing something well, employees often find the activities or tasks they perform interesting and enjoyable.

Examples of intrinsic rewards include

a sense of accomplishment or achievement, a feeling of responsibility, the chance to learn something new or interact with others, or simply the fun that comes from performing an interesting, challenging, and engaging task.

Companies are now beginning to apply

"gamification"—meaning levels, points, time limits, and friendly competition—to organizational tasks like training, data entry, sales leads, car pooling, etc.

satisfy lower-order needs first this means

providing the equipment, training, and knowledge to create a safe workplace free of physical risks, paying employees well enough to provide financial security, and offering a benefits package that will protect employees and their families through good medical coverage and health and disability insurance.

Recall that intrinsic rewards

such as accomplishment, achievement, learning something new, and interacting with others are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake.

one way for managers to meet employees' higher-order needs

is to create opportunities for employees to experience intrinsic rewards by providing challenging work, encouraging employees to take greater responsibility for their work, and giving employees the freedom to pursue tasks and projects they find naturally interesting.

Extrinsic rewards

a reward that is tangible, visible to others, and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors

Intrinsic rewards

a natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake

Equity theory

a theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly

Equity theory

says that people will be motivated at work when they perceive that they are being treated fairly.

In particular, equity theory stresses

the importance of perceptions. So, regardless of the actual level of rewards people receive, they must also perceive that, relative to others, they are being treated fairly.

The basic components of equity theory are inputs, outcomes, and referents.

Inputs

in equity theory, the contributions employees make to the organization

Inputs are the contributions employees make to the organization. They include education and training, intelligence, experience, effort, number of hours worked, and ability.

. Outcomes are what employees receive in exchange for their contributions to the organization. They include pay, fringe benefits, status symbols, and job titles and assignments.

referents are other people with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly.

According to equity theory, employees compare their outcomes (the rewards they receive from the organization) with their inputs (their contributions to the organization).

This comparison of outcomes with inputs is called the outcome/input (O/I) ratio.

When people perceive that their O/I ratio is equal to the referent's O/I ratio, they conclude that they are being treated fairly.

But when people perceive that their O/I ratio is different from their referent's O/I ratio, they conclude that they have been treated inequitably or unfairly.

Inequity can take two forms

, underreward and overreward

Underreward occurs

when a referent's O/I ratio is better than your O/I ratio.

Underreward

In other words, you are getting fewer outcomes relative to your inputs than the referent you compare yourself with is getting.

overreward

occurs when a referent's O/I ratio is worse than your O/I ratio.

overreward

In this case, you are getting more outcomes relative to your inputs than your referent is

Outcomes

in equity theory, the rewards employees receive for their contributions to the organization

referents

in equity theory, others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly

outcome/input (O/I) ratio

in equity theory, an employee's perception of how the rewards received from an organization compare with the employee's contributions to that organization

Underreward

a form of inequity in which you are getting fewer outcomes relative to inputs than your referent is getting

overreward

a form of inequity in which you are getting more outcomes relative to inputs than your referent

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs suggests that people are motivated by physiological (food and water), safety (physical and economic), belongingness (friendship, love, social interaction), esteem (achievement and recognition), and self-actualization (realizing your full potential) needs.

(FLSA)

Fair Labor Standards Act

Another method of restoring equity

is to rationalize or distort inputs or outcomes. Instead of decreasing inputs or increasing outcomes, employees restore equity by making mental or emotional adjustments in their O/I ratios or the O/I ratios of their referents.

Another method of restoring equity

is to rationalize or distort inputs or outcomes

Changing the referent

is another way of restoring equity

Changing the referent

In this case, people compare themselves with someone other than the referent they had been using for previous O/I ratio comparisons

equity theory

makes us aware that an employee's sense of fairness is based on subjective perceptions

distributive justice

the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated

Equity theory focuses

on distributive justice

procedural justice

the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions

Expectancy theory

the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards

The three factors that affect those choices

are valence, expectancy, and instrumentality

Valence

the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome

Expectancy

the perceived relationship between effort and performance

Instrumentality

the perceived relationship between performance and rewards

Reinforcement theory

the theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

Expectancy theory holds that

for people to be highly motivated, all three variables—valence, expectancy, and instrumentality—must be high

Motivation

= Valence (x) Expectancy (x) Instrumentality

empowerment is a feeling .

of intrinsic motivation in which workers perceive their work to have meaning and perceive themselves to be competent, to have an impact, and to be capable of self-determination

Reinforcement theory

the theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

reinforcement

the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior

Reinforcement has two parts:

reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement

Reinforcement contingencies

cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences

schedule of reinforcement

rules that specify which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered

There are four kinds of reinforcement contingencies:

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction

Positive reinforcement

reinforcement that strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences

Negative reinforcement

reinforcement that strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior

Negative reinforcement

is also called avoidance learning because workers perform a behavior to avoid a negative consequence

punishment

reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences

Extinction

reinforcement in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior, thus weakening the behavior

There are two categories of reinforcement schedules:

continuous and intermittent

continuous reinforcement schedules

a schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of a behavior

intermittent reinforcement schedules

a schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred

there are four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules

Two of these are based on time and are called interval reinforcement schedules; the other two, known as ratio schedules, are based on behaviors.

fixed interval reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed

variable interval reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average

fixed ratio reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors

variable ratio reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors

there are five steps to motivating workers with reinforcement theory:

identify, measure, analyze, intervene, and evaluate critical performance-related behaviors

Identify means

singling out critical, observable, performance-related behaviors

Measure means

determining the baseline frequencies of these behaviors

Analyze means

studying the causes and consequences of these behaviors

Intervene means

changing the organization by using positive and negative reinforcement to increase the frequency of these critical behaviors.

Evaluate means

assessing the extent to which the intervention actually changed workers' behavior