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developemntal psychology
Authoritarian Parenting
A strict parenting style characterized by controlling behavior and a lack of flexibility, leading to potential struggles in independent thinking and self-confidence in children.
Authoritative Parenting
A style that encourages independence and communication, where parents provide guidance while allowing children to participate in decision-making, leading to higher social competence.
Permissive Parenting
A lenient parenting style with few rules or boundaries, which can result in children struggling with self-control.
Neglectful/Disengaged Parenting
A lack of involvement and emotional support from parents, potentially leading to attachment issues and difficulties in emotional regulation.
Effects of Authoritarian Parenting
Authoritarian parenting can lead to low self-esteem, poor social skills, and difficulties in independent thinking, as children may struggle with autonomy due to a lack of emotional support and rigid expectations.
Effects of Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parenting is associated with higher self-esteem, better social skills, and improved emotional regulation in children, as it promotes independence within a supportive framework.
Effects of Permissive Parenting
Permissive parenting can result in children having poor self-control and difficulties in social settings due to a lack of structure and boundaries.
Effects of Neglectful/Disengaged Parenting
Neglectful or disengaged parenting can lead to attachment issues, emotional regulation difficulties, and a higher likelihood of behavioral problems in children.
Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
A theory outlining four stages: Sensorimotor (0-2 years), Preoperational (2-7 years), Concrete Operational (7-11 years), and Formal Operational (12+ years). Each stage highlights different cognitive capabilities.
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
Focuses on sensory experiences and motor activities, with a key concept of object permanence — the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight (e.g., peekaboo).
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Children begin using symbols (e.g., words, images) to represent objects but lack logical reasoning. Key concepts include egocentrism, which is the difficulty in seeing things from others’ perspectives (e.g., 'It’s mine!'), and imaginative play (e.g., pretending to be a doctor or superhero).
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Logical thinking emerges, but it's still tied to concrete objects and situations. Children can perform operations like conservation, understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance (e.g., water poured into different-sized containers).
Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)
Characterized by abstract thinking, problem-solving, and hypothetical reasoning. Adolescents can think about future possibilities and abstract concepts, including the consequences of actions.
Assimilation
The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas (e.g., a child sees a horse and calls it a 'dog').
Accommodation
The process of changing existing schemas to incorporate new experiences (e.g., realizing that the horse is not a dog, so the child creates a new category).
Object Permanence
Key concept of the Sensorimotor Stage where children learn that objects continue to exist even when not visible.
Egocentrism
A concept in the Preoperational Stage indicating difficulty in seeing things from others’ perspectives.
Conservation
Understanding in the Concrete Operational Stage that quantities remain the same despite changes in shape or appearance.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
A theory outlining eight stages of psychosocial development from infancy (Trust vs. Mistrust) to late adulthood (Integrity vs. Despair). Each stage presents a challenge that influences personal growth.
Trust vs. Mistrust ((birth to 2 years: Infancy)
In this stage, infants learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs, which sets the foundation for future relationships.When caregivers are consistent and reliable, infants develop a sense of trust; when they are neglectful or inconsistent, it can lead to mistrust.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2 to 3 years: Early Childhood)
Children develop a sense of personal control over physical skills (walking,eating) and a sense of independence; success leads to autonomy, while failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5: Preschool Age)
In this stage, children assert control and power over their environment through directing play and other social interactions; success leads to a sense of initiative, while failure results in guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands; success leads to a sense of competence (mastering skills, achieving leads to competence and confidence in their skills) while failure results in feelings of inferiority (doubting their capabilities and leading to challenges in self-worth)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years: Adolescence)
Teens explore their independence and develop a sense of self; success leads to strong identity, while failure results in role confusion.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 to 45ish: Young Adulthood)
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with others; success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (45ish to 70 Middle Adulthood)
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them (e.g., parenting); success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Integrity vs. Despair (70 to 85 years Maturity)
In this final stage, older adults reflect on their lives and feel a sense of fulfillment or a sense of regret; success leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in bitterness and despair.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A lifelong condition characterized by difficulty in social interactions, language delays, repetitive behaviors ( hand flapping, spinning objects), sensory sensitivity (light, sound, touch) with early signs often appearing before age 2.
Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
Characterized by the concrete operational stage where logical thinking emerges, and children develop problem-solving abilities. Middle childhood (ages 7-12) is a period of significant cognitive growth.
Children develop better problem-solving abilities and can understand cause-and-effect relationships
Concrete Operational Stage
Logical thinking emerges, but children still struggle with abstract concepts.
Key cognitive abilities: conservation, classification, seriation, and reversibility.
Children’s language development accelerates during this stage (up to 50,000 words by age 11).
Formal Operations
Ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.
Adolescent brain development leads to improved executive function, though risk-taking behavior is still common due to immature brain areas related to decision-making and impulse control.
Adolescent Development
Involves cognitive, physical, and social changes, including the onset of puberty, physical growth, and the development of complex social relationships.
Social development
Peer pressure and social acceptance become central concerns.
Romantic relationships start to form, but communication and relationship skills are still developing.
Types of Bullying
Includes physical, verbal, relational, and cyberbullying, all of which can negatively impact victims' mental health and social development.
Bullying impact on victims
Increased risk of mental health issues, academic difficulties, and future relationship struggles.
Bullying can also affect the perpetrator's social and emotional development.
Types of Child Abuse
Includes physical, emotional, sexual abuse, and neglect, leading to long-term mental health effects.
Signs: Changes in behavior, unexplained injuries, withdrawal, fear of going home.
Gender Schemas
Mental representations of gender roles and expectations formed during childhood.
Gender Socialization
The process by which children learn societal norms and behaviors associated with their gender.
Adolescent Risk-Taking
Increased risk-taking behavior in adolescents due to hormonal changes and brain development affecting impulse control.
Dating:
Positive effects: Building social skills, learning about intimacy, and forming future relationship patterns.
Risks: Dating violence, unhealthy relationship dynamics, and early sexual activity.
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
A theory proposing different types of intelligence, including linguistic-verbal, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential.
Linguistic-verbal
Strong language skills (e.g., writers, speakers).
Logical-mathematical
Good with numbers, patterns, and logical reasoning (e.g., scientists, mathematicians).
Spatial
Good with visualizing and manipulating objects (e.g., artists, architects).
Bodily-kinesthetic
Strong in physical coordination (e.g., athletes, dancers)
Musical
Sensitivity to rhythm, tone, and music (e.g., musicians, composers).
Interpersonal
Understanding and interacting with others (e.g., teachers, therapists).
Intrapersonal
Self-awareness and introspection (e.g., psychologists, philosophers).
Naturalistic
Understanding nature and living organisms (e.g., biologists, farmers).
Existential
Understanding deep questions of existence (e.g., philosophers).
