Blood Vessels, Hemodynamics, and Systems Practice Flashcards

A comprehensive set of 100 vocabulary flashcards covering blood vessels, hemodynamics, fluid and electrolyte balance, the lymphatic and immune systems, respiratory and digestive anatomy, the urinary system, and reproductive biology.

Arteries

Vessels that carry blood away from the heart and function as conductance vessels.

Arterioles

The smallest arteries that function as resistance vessels by constricting or dilating to regulate peripheral resistance.

Capillaries

The smallest and most numerous vessels that function as exchange vessels for nutrients, gases, and wastes.

Venules and Veins

Vessels that return blood back toward the heart and act as capacitance vessels (blood reservoirs).

Tunica intima

The innermost layer of a blood vessel wall, made of simple squamous endothelium.

Tunica media

The middle layer of a blood vessel wall consisting of elastic tissue and smooth muscle.

Tunica adventitia

The outer supportive layer of a blood vessel wall made of connective tissue.

Skeletal muscle pump

A venous return mechanism where muscles squeeze veins to propel blood toward the heart.

Ascending Aorta

The portion of the largest artery where the coronary arteries first branch off.

Superior Vena Cava (SVC)

A large vein that drains blood from the head, neck, upper chest, and upper extremities.

Inferior Vena Cava (IVC)

A large vein that drains all regions of the body below the diaphragm.

Pulmonary Artery / Trunk

The vessel that exits the right ventricle to take deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

Pulmonary Veins

The four vessels that enter the left atrium carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs.

Coronary Arteries

The first branches off the ascending aorta that supply oxygenated blood directly to the myocardium.

Circle of Willis

An anastomosis in the brain formed by the internal carotid and vertebral arteries.

Hepatic Portal Vein

A vessel that carries nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood from the stomach, intestines, and spleen to the liver.

Hepatic Veins

Veins that drain the liver and empty into the Inferior Vena Cava ($IVC$).

Acid

A substance that dissociates and releases hydrogen ions ($H^+$) into solution, resulting in a $pH < 7.0$.

Base (Alkaline)

A substance that combines with $H^+$ and removes them from solution, resulting in a $pH > 7.0$.

Neutral Solution

A solution with an equal balance of $H^+$ and $OH^-$, resulting in a $pH = 7.0$.

Normal arterial blood pH

A physiological range between $7.35–7.45$.

Chemical Buffers

The internal regulation mechanism that provides an instant response by binding or donating $H^+$.

Respiratory pH Regulation

A mechanism that responds within minutes by adjusting ventilation to eliminate or retain $CO_2$.

Renal pH Regulation

The slowest but most powerful mechanism that selectively secretes or reabsorbs $H^+$ and $HCO_3^-$.

First spacing

The normal physiological distribution of water between the intracellular fluid ($ICF$) and extracellular fluid ($ECF$).

Second spacing

The abnormal accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces, commonly known as edema.

Third spacing

Fluid accumulation in body cavities or spaces where it is functionally unavailable and difficult to reabsorb.

Sodium ($Na^+$)

The chief extracellular cation that regulates water balance and fluid shifts, with a normal range of $135–145\,mEq/L$.

Hypernatremia

The term used for an excess of sodium in the blood.

Hyponatremia

The term used for a deficit of sodium in the blood.

Potassium ($K^+$)

The chief intracellular cation vital for cardiac and nerve/muscle conduction, with a normal range of $3.5–5.0\,mEq/L$.

Hyperkalemia

The term used for an excess of potassium in the blood.

Hypokalemia

The term used for a deficit of potassium in the blood.

Calcium ($Ca^{2+}$)

An electrolyte used for bone structure, muscle contraction, and blood clotting, with a normal range of $8.5–10.5\,mg/dL$.

Hypercalcemia

The term used for an excess of calcium in the blood.

Hypocalcemia

The term used for a deficit of calcium in the blood.

Lymph

Interstitial fluid that has entered closed-ended lymphatic capillaries.

Thoracic Duct

The lymphatic duct that empties lymph into the subclavian veins (specifically the left).

Lymph Nodes

Clusters located in cervical, axillary, and inguinal areas that filter lymph of debris and pathogens.

Thymus Gland

A gland in the superior mediastinum that produces thymosins to promote T-cell proliferation and maturation.

Spleen

The largest lymphatic organ which filters blood, destroys old RBCs, and conducts immune surveillance.

Peyer patches

Lymphatic nodules located in the ileum of the small intestine.

Nonspecific (Innate) Immunity

General defense mechanisms present at birth, such as mechanical barriers, chemical barriers, and reflexes.

Specific (Adaptive) Immunity

A targeted immune response with memory involving T and B lymphocytes.

Phagocytosis

A second-line nonspecific defense mechanism involving neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages.

Cell-Mediated Immunity

Specific immunity where T lymphocytes ($CD4^+$ and $CD8^+$) attack infected or foreign cells directly.

Antibody-Mediated / Humoral Immunity

Specific immunity where B lymphocytes become plasma cells to produce immunoglobulins.

Naturally Acquired Active Immunity

Immunity resulting from a natural infection and the subsequent development of memory cells.

Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity

Immunity resulting from maternal antibodies passed via the placenta ($IgG$) or breast milk ($IgA$).

Artificially Acquired Active Immunity

Immunity resulting from a vaccination containing dead or attenuated antigens.

Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity

Immunity resulting from the direct injection of immune globulins or antibodies.

Larynx

The voice box; contains the epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, glottis, and vocal cords.

Trachea

The windpipe; supported by C-shaped cartilaginous rings.

Carina

The anatomical point where the trachea branches into the primary (mainstem) bronchi.

Surfactant

A phospholipid that disrupts water cohesion, decreasing alveolar surface tension to prevent atelectasis.

Atelectasis

The term for alveolar collapse upon exhalation.

Respiratory Membrane

The ultra-thin site in the alveoli where gas exchange occurs via passive diffusion.

Tidal Volume (TV)

The volume of air moved during quiet breathing, approximately $500\,mL$.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

The volume of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal inhalation.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

The volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal exhalation.

Residual Volume (RV)

The air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation.

Vital Capacity (VC)

The maximum volume of air exhaled after a maximal inhalation ($VC = TV + IRV + ERV$).

Oxyhemoglobin

The form in which $98\%$ of oxygen is transported in the blood, bound to hemoglobin.

Bicarbonate ions ($HCO_3^-$)

The form in which $70\%$ of carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) is transported in the blood.

Carbaminohemoglobin

The form in which $20\%$ of carbon dioxide is transported, bound to hemoglobin.

Peristalsis

Wave-like propulsive contractions responsible for moving food through the digestive tract.

Segmentation

Mixing contractions occurring in the muscularis externa of the digestive tract.

Mucosa

The innermost layer of the digestive tract wall, containing the epithelial lining and lamina propria.

Submucosa

The digestive wall layer containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and the submucosal plexus.

Muscularis externa

The digestive wall layer usually consisting of inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle.

Serosa

The outermost layer of the digestive wall, also known as the visceral peritoneum.

Bile salts

Substances produced by the liver that emulsify large fat globules into small droplets.

Amylase

A pancreatic enzyme that digests starch and carbohydrates into disaccharides.

Proteases

Enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin that digest proteins into peptides and amino acids.

Lipase

An enzyme that digests triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol.

Lacteals

Intestinal lymphatic vessels into which free fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed.

Catabolism

The breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy ($ATP$).

Anabolism

The synthesis of complex cellular structures from simpler building blocks, requiring energy input.

Radiation

The transfer of heat from the body to the cooler environment via infrared heat waves.

Conduction

The direct transfer of heat through physical contact with a cooler object.

Convection

The transfer of heat away from the body by moving air or fluid currents across the skin.

Evaporation

Heat loss occurring as liquid water (sweat) converts to gas on the skin surface.

Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney.

Glomerulus

The capillary knot enclosed in Bowman’s capsule where filtration occurs.

Glomerular Filtration

The process where high hydrostatic pressure forces water and small solutes into Bowman’s capsule.

Tubular Reabsorption

The selective movement of filtered water, glucose, and electrolytes from tubular fluid back into peritubular capillaries.

Tubular Secretion

The active transport of waste products, drugs, and ions from peritubular blood into the distal tubules.

Aldosterone

A hormone from the adrenal cortex that stimulates $Na^+$ reabsorption and $K^+$ excretion.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

A posterior pituitary hormone that increases aquaporin water channels to concentrate urine.

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

A hormone from the heart atria that promotes excretion of $Na^+$ and $H_2O$ to lower blood pressure.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

A hormone that targets renal tubules to increase $Ca^{2+}$ reabsorption and phosphate excretion.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to hypoxia to stimulate red blood cell production.

Spermatogenesis

The process of sperm production occurring in the seminiferous tubules.

Leydig cells

Interstitial cells in the testes that produce testosterone.

Epididymis

The site of sperm storage and maturation.

Fallopian tubes / Oviducts

The site of fertilization, featuring fimbriae to catch the ovulated egg.

Myometrium

The middle smooth muscle layer of the uterus.

Endometrium

The inner lining of the uterus; specifically the functional stratum shed during menstruation.

LH Surge

The hormonal event on Day 14 of the ovarian cycle that triggers ovulation.

Prolactin

The anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates milk production.