Anatomy and Physiology: Introductory Concepts, Chemistry, and Cell Biology

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards generated from lecture notes covering key terms across introductory A&P, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, organic molecules, and cellular organelles.

Intrinsic regulation

Local homeostatic regulation that occurs at the tissue or organ level, also known as autoregulation.

Extrinsic regulation

Homeostatic regulation controlled externally via neural or hormonal signals.

Negative feedback

The most common homeostatic control mechanism characterized by a self-stopping loop where the response counteracts the original stimulus.

Positive feedback

A feedback mechanism that amplifies changes and allows for rapid physiological shifts, such as during childbirth or blood clotting.

Sensor

A specific cell type, tissue, or organ equipped with receptors to detect a physical or chemical condition.

Control center

A neural or endocrine structure that processes sensory information and sends an intercellular message.

Effector

A cell, tissue, or structure receiving a regulatory signal that changes its activity to counteract a stimulus.

Gradient

A difference in pressure, concentration, electrical charge, or thermal energy between two points, down which matter and energy naturally flow.

Isomer

A molecule that shares the same chemical formula as another molecule but possesses a different structural configuration.

Polar covalent bond

A chemical bond where electrons are shared unequally between atoms due to differences in electronegativity.

Colloid

A mixture of medium-sized particles (often proteins and water) that stay suspended but cannot cross biological membranes.

Suspension

A mixture containing large particles that eventually separate over time, such as blood cells suspended in plasma.

Buffer

A solution that resists changes in pH by releasing or accepting $\text{H}^+$ ions.

Law of mass action

The principle stating that the relative concentrations of reactants and products dictate the direction of a reversible chemical reaction.

Catabolism

Decomposition metabolic reactions that are energy-yielding, exergonic, and spontaneous.

Anabolism

Synthesis metabolic reactions that are energy-requiring, endergonic, and non-spontaneous.

Dehydration synthesis

A condensation reaction that links monomers together into polymers by removing a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks polymers down into monomers by adding a water molecule.

Glycogen

A polysaccharide that serves as medium-term carbohydrate energy storage in human body tissue.

Triglyceride

A lipid composed of a glycerol bound to $1$ to $3$ fatty acids that functions in long-term energy storage, insulation, and padding.

Eicosanoid

A category of chemical messenger lipids synthesized from arachidonic acid, including prostaglandins.

Steroid

A lipid defined by a unique $4$-ring structure derived from cholesterol.

Denaturation

A conformational change in a protein's structure that alters or destroys its biological function.

Active site

The specific region on an enzyme where substrate molecules bind to undergo a reaction.

Kinase

An enzyme that catalyzes phosphorylation by transferring a phosphate group to a target molecule.

Anaerobic fermentation

An oxygen-independent metabolic pathway that yields $2$ ATP per glucose molecule.

Aerobic respiration

An oxygen-dependent cellular process that yields $36$ ATP per glucose molecule.

Proteasome

An organelle that enzymatically hydrolyzes and degrades proteins.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

An endomembrane organelle studded with ribosomes dedicated to protein synthesis.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

An endomembrane organelle without ribosomes that synthesizes non-protein materials (hormones, lipids, glycogen) and stores $\text{Ca}^{2+}$ in muscle tissue.

Golgi apparatus

An organelle composed of flattened pita-shaped sacs that packages secretions, maintains cell membranes, and packages enzymes.

Lysosome

An organelle containing hydrolytic digestive enzymes that serves as the cellular stomach.

Peroxisome

An organelle containing oxidizing enzymes that performs fatty acid beta-oxidation and uses catalase to break down $\text{H}_2\text{O}_2$.

Transcription

The genetic process occurring in the nucleus where DNA is copied into mRNA.

Translation

The genetic process occurring at the ribosomes where mRNA code is translated into amino acid chains to synthesize proteins.

Microvilli

Cytoplasmic extension structures that increase the surface area of a cell.