AP PSYCH KEYWORDS + NAMES

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome is known, that one 'knew it all along.'

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that supports one's existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's abilities, knowledge, or accuracy in judgments.

Quantitative research

A systematic investigation that focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis to understand patterns or relationships.

Qualitative research

A method of investigation that explores behaviors, thoughts, and experiences through descriptive, non-numerical data.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Dependent variable

The factor in an experiment that is measured to assess the effect of another variable.

Independent variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated to determine its effect on another variable.

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a scientific claim that allows it to be proven wrong through evidence.

Operational definitions

Specific explanations of abstract concepts that allow them to be measured or tested in a study.

Replicated

The process of repeating a study to determine if the original findings are reliable.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger group to represent the whole in a study.

Population

The entire group from which a subset is drawn for research.

Representative sample

A subset that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger group.

Random sampling

A selection process in which each member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Convenience sampling

A selection process that involves choosing participants who are readily available rather than randomly selected.

Generalize

The ability to apply findings from a study to a broader population.

Stratified sampling

A selection process in which the population is divided into subgroups and participants are chosen from each subgroup proportionally.

Confounding variables

Uncontrolled factors that may interfere with the results of an experiment.

Random assignment

A process that ensures participants are placed in groups by chance to minimize pre-existing differences.

Experimenter bias

When a researcher's expectations or preferences unintentionally influence study results.

Double-blind study

A research method in which both participants and researchers are unaware of who is receiving a treatment to reduce bias.

Single-blind study

A research method in which participants are unaware of which group they belong to, but researchers know.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of participants to respond in a way that is viewed favorably by others rather than truthfully.

Experimental group

The participants who receive the treatment or independent variable in an experiment.

Control group

The participants who do not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Placebo method

A technique in which an inactive substance or procedure is given to some participants to compare its effects with those of the actual treatment.

Placebo effect

A psychological response where participants experience changes due to their expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Positive correlation

A relationship in which two variables increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

A relationship in which one variable increases while the other decreases.

Study

A systematic investigation designed to examine relationships or effects between variables.

Likert scales

A survey tool that measures attitudes or opinions using a range of responses, such as 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree.'

Directionality problem

A challenge in determining which variable causes changes in the other when a relationship is observed.

Third variable

An external factor that may influence the relationship between two other variables.

Naturalistic observation

A research method in which behavior is studied in its natural setting without interference.

Structured interview

A research method in which participants answer a set of predetermined questions in a controlled format.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual or small group over an extended period.

Central tendency

A measure that describes the center of a data set.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of numbers.

Median

The middle score in a ranked data set.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Bimodal

A distribution with two distinct peaks or most frequent values.

Positively skewed

A distribution where most scores are low, with a few high outliers pulling the mean higher.

Negatively skewed

A distribution where most scores are high, with a few low outliers pulling the mean lower.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a set.

Variance

A measure of how spread out the data points are around the mean.

Standard deviation

A measure of variation that indicates the average distance of scores from the mean.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where most scores cluster around the mean.

Percentiles

A ranking that indicates the percentage of scores below a particular value.

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical value (-1 to 1) that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot

A graph that displays data points to show relationships between two variables.

Statistically significant

A result that is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Effect size

A measurement of the strength of a relationship or difference between variables.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to confirm its findings.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines data from multiple studies to draw broader conclusions.

Peer review

A process in which other experts evaluate research before publication.

No coercion

The ethical principle that participation in research must be voluntary.

Informed consent

The requirement that participants must be fully aware of the study's nature and risks before agreeing to participate.

Deception

The ethical practice of withholding some details of a study from participants when necessary, with guidelines for later disclosure.

Informed assent

A simplified consent process for minors or individuals who cannot give full consent, requiring approval from a guardian.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle that personal information of participants must be kept private.

Risk

The potential for physical or psychological harm to participants in a study.

Protection from harm

The obligation to ensure participants are not exposed to unnecessary distress.

Debriefing

The process of explaining the true purpose of a study to participants after it concludes, especially if deception was used.

Genetic Predisposition

A tendency for certain traits or behaviors to be inherited genetically, making an individual more likely to develop particular characteristics or conditions.

Neurons

Specialized cells in the nervous system that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Multiple Sclerosis

A chronic disease where the immune system attacks the protective sheath covering nerves, leading to communication issues between the brain and the body.

Neural Transmission

The process by which signals are sent from one neuron to another across synapses using neurotransmitters.

Resting Potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is not actively sending a signal.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to activate a neuron and produce an electrical impulse.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron's axon, triggered when the neuron's threshold is reached.

All-or-None Principle

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all in response to a stimulus.

Depolarization

The process during which a neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative, moving closer to triggering an action potential.

Excitatory

Signals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Inhibitory

Signals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in arousal and stress responses.

Glutamate

The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory.

GABA

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, reducing neuronal excitability.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood elevators.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals to the brain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and memory formation.

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that weakens skeletal muscles by disrupting communication between nerves and muscles.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Interneurons

Neurons within the central nervous system that relay signals between sensory and motor neurons.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including nerves and ganglia.

Reflex Arcs

Neural pathways that control reflex actions, bypassing the brain for quicker responses.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the body's fight-or-flight response.

Parapsympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that promotes rest and digestion.

Endocrine System

A system of glands that secrete hormones to regulate bodily functions.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands that regulate various bodily processes.

Adrenaline

A hormone and neurotransmitter that triggers the body's fight-or-flight response.

Leptin

A hormone that regulates hunger by signaling satiety to the brain.