Social Psychology Lecture Notes

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering the core concepts, theories, and research studies from the Social Psychology lecture transcript.

Social Psychology

A scientific field that aims to understand and explain how the thoughts and behavior of individuals are influenced by the social environment and the presence (real or imagined) of others.

Kurt Lewin's Equation

A formula stating that human behavior is a result of the interaction between the person and their environment, expressed as $\text{Person} + \text{Environment} = \text{Behavior}$.

Clinical Psychology

A field focused on the individual's psyche and internal processes, with an emphasis on abnormality and conditions that deviate from accepted norms.

Sociology

A field focused on society and group behaviors, addressing individuals in the context of social values, norms, and relationships.

Wall Street Game Study

A research example showing that framing a situation as either a "Community Game" or a "Wall Street Game" significantly altered cooperation levels, regardless of the participants' personalities.

EAST Model

A framework to influence behavior by making a request $Easy$, $Attractive$, $Social$, and $Timely$.

Anchoring

A cognitive bias where the first piece of information or number given serves as a reference point that influences subsequent decisions and judgments.

Internal Validity

The extent to which a study can establish a cause-and-effect relationship, typically high in experimental research.

External Validity (Realism)

The extent to which research findings reflect real-world situations, often higher in correlational studies but lower in controlled experiments.

Experimenter Effect

A research error where the researcher unconsciously influences the results of the study based on their personal expectations.

Stanford Prison Experiment

A study by Zimbardo where students randomly assigned as guards or prisoners quickly adopted extreme behaviors, demonstrating the power of social roles and environment.

Self-Concept

A dynamic concept that changes based on social interactions, environmental "labeling," and societal expectations.

Independent Self

A self-perception where the individual sees themselves as a separate unit, emphasizing uniqueness and independence rather than social connections.

Interdependent Self

A self-perception where the individual defines themselves through relationships with others, such as family, friends, and work.

Self-Perception Theory

Daryl Bem's theory stating that individuals infer their own internal feelings and traits by observing their own behavior and the circumstances in which it occurs.

Overjustification Effect

The decrease in intrinsic motivation that occurs when an activity people already enjoy is rewarded with a strong external incentive.

Social Comparison Theory

Festinger's theory that people learn about their own abilities and traits by comparing themselves to others, typically those who are similar.

Objective Self-Awareness Theory

The theory that when people focus on themselves (e.g., via a mirror or camera), they compare their behavior to internal and social standards, leading to behavior change or avoidance.

Downward Social Comparison

A self-enhancement mechanism where individuals compare themselves to people in a worse situation to feel better about themselves.

Downward Counterfactual Thinking

Thinking about how a situation could have been worse to maintain a positive self-view.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors (self) and failures to external factors (environment).

Self-Handicapping

Creating obstacles or excuses in advance of a task to protect self-esteem in case of failure.

BIRGing (Basking in Reflected Glory)

A mechanism where individuals identify with successful groups to boost their own self-esteem (e.g., saying "we won" after a sports victory).

CORFing (Cutting Off Reflected Failure)

Distancing oneself from a group that has failed to protect one's self-image (e.g., saying "they lost").

Name Letter Effect

The subconscious tendency of people to prefer letters that appear in their own names and numbers related to them, like their birth date.

Sex vs. Gender

Sex refers to biological physical traits (male/female), while Gender refers to societal expectations of behavior, roles, and appearance.

Gender-Typing

The process of adopting the stereotypes and expected behaviors associated with one's gender.

First Impression

An evolutionary, non-voluntary data collection process occurring in less than $0.25$ seconds in the limbic system to evaluate situations for survival.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Primacy Effect

The phenomenon where information presented first has a disproportionately strong influence on the overall impression formed about a person.

Asch's Configuration Model

The idea that an impression is a combination of traits, but central traits (like "warm" vs. "cold") carry more weight and change the perception of the entire personality.

Schema

A mental structure containing knowledge, beliefs, and expectations from the past that help interpret new information (Types: Script, Stereotype, Personal, Self).

Pygmalion Effect

A self-fulfilling prophecy where an initial belief about a person influences how we treat them, which in turn causes them to behave in a way that confirms the original belief.

Stereotype

A cognitive schema or generalization attributing specific traits to all members of a group without considering individual differences.

Prejudice

An elective or affective judgment (positive or negative) of individuals based solely on their group membership before knowing them personally.

Discrimination

The behavioral component involving unequal treatment or violation of rights based on an individual's group membership.

Out-group Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to perceive members of an outside group as very similar to one another while seeing one's own group members as diverse individuals.

Realistic Conflict Theory

The theory that competition for limited resources (money, power, jobs) creates hostility, stereotypes, and prejudice between groups.

Contact Hypothesis

The theory that meetings between different groups can reduce prejudice if conditions like equal status, meaningful interaction, and shared goals are met.

Informational Conformity

Conforming because one relies on the group's opinion to understand the correct behavior in ambiguous or unclear situations (seen in Sherif's autokinetic study).

Normative Conformity

Conforming to a group's behavior to gain social approval and avoid rejection, even when the person knows the group is wrong (seen in Asch's line study).

Milgram's Obedience Study

A study demonstrating that individuals often obey authority figures to the point of performing harmful acts against others due to perceived duty or reduced personal responsibility.

Hofling Hospital Study

A study where $21$ out of $22$ nurses obeyed a phone command from an unknown doctor to administer a dangerous dose of medication, demonstrating the power of professional authority.

Moscovici's Minority Influence

The theory that a small group can influence the majority if they are consistent, confident, and persistent in their alternative viewpoint.

Kim and Markus Pen Study

A study showing cultural differences in preference; Americans (individualists) chose unique pens, while Asians (collectivists) chose the most common color pen.

ABC Model of Attitudes

Attitudes consist of three components: $Affective$ (feelings), $Behavioral$ (intentions), and $Cognitive$ (beliefs/knowledge).

Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger's theory that inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors creates psychological discomfort, leading individuals to change their attitudes or justify their actions.

Effort Justification

A dissonance-reduction strategy where individuals increase their appreciation for something they worked hard for to justify the effort spent.

Bogus Pipeline

A technique where participants are led to believe a machine (like a polygraph) can detect their true attitudes, encouraging more honest responses.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

A model of persuasion describing two paths: the Central Route (deep processing of content) and the Peripheral Route (influence by external cues).

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A persuasion strategy starting with a small request to gain commitment, followed by a larger request (relying on the need for consistency).

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A persuasion strategy starting with a large, unreasonable request meant to be rejected, followed by a smaller, intended request (relying on the norm of reciprocity).

Low-Ball Technique

Gaining agreement for an attractive offer and then revealing hidden costs or less favorable conditions after the person has committed.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A pyramid of human needs used in advertising, ranging from physical survival to safety, social belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization.

Top of Mind (TOM)

The first brand that comes to a consumer's mind when thinking of a specific product category.

Spiral of Silence

The tendency of people to remain silent about their opinions if they believe they are in the minority, fearing social isolation.

De-marketing

The use of marketing tools to decrease demand for harmful products or behaviors, such as smoking or pollution.

Greenwashing

When a company presents an environmentally friendly image in advertising while its actual practices are not sustainable.

Altruism

Helping behavior performed without any expectation of personal reward, interest, or gain.

Arousal-Cost-Reward Model

The theory that seeing someone in distress creates unpleasant arousal, and people decide to help based on the lowest calculated cost to'reduce that tension.

Just-World Belief

The psychological tendency to believe the world is fair and people get what they deserve, which can lead to blaming victims for their plight.

Bystander Effect

A phenomenon where the presence of more witnesses in an emergency decreases the likelihood that any single person will help.

Pluralistic Ignorance (Multiple Ignorance)

A state where bystanders look at others to see how to react; if no one else reacts, they assume there is no emergency.

Diffusion of Responsibility

A psychological state in a crowd where each person feels less personally accountable for acting because others are present.

Audience Inhibition

The fear of making a mistake or being judged by others, which prevents a person from intervening in an emergency.