(MODS 26-30) - PSYCH TEST 3

What is a concept? How is it developed? 

Developing Concepts - a concept is a grouping of things that have some similarity 

• Represents a category of related things 

• Formation of a concept is based on your negative/positive experiences of the concept 

Prototype: an ideal model or best example of a concept 

• The more closely an object matches our prototype the more easy it is to connect it to a concept 

What are methods of problem solving? 

Insight → sudden realization of the solution (aha phenomenon), reorganized the elements of the problem and how you looked at it 

Algorithm - a step by step method that guarantees a solution. Can be time consuming

• Reorganizing anagram; using an algorithm that guarantees finding the right word by testing all combinations 

Heuristic - uses a shortcut to solve the problem. Theres no guarantee of a solution 

• Reorganizing anagram; Using your knowledge and pairing letters that

What are obstacles that hinder problem solving? 

1. Confirmation bias - tend to see only information that supports our preconception 

2. Fixation - we become hung up on the wrong solution and are blind to alternatives ;placing unnecessary restrictions on our thinking 

   1. Functional Fixedness: an example of restricted thinking where we fail to see that an object can have different functions 

   2. Mental set - an example of fixation; predisposes how we think (sets you up to think about smth a certain way) 

   3. Perceptual set - predisposes us to PERCEIVE smth in a certain way

Factors that influence our decision making/ judgement? 

1. Availability Heuristic 

• We assume that events are more common than they really are if they easily come to mind or if they are vivid or memorable 

• E.g having a wedding end with rain and thinking that the entire summer had bad weather 

2. Representativeness heuristic: judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match prototypes; may lead us to ignore relevant info 

3. Overconfidence - overestimating the accuracy of their knowledge and judgement 

4. Belief Perseverance - adhere to your beliefs even when presented with contradictory information 

5. Framing - how we present an issue 

• How we word a question 

What are the different components to language? 

1. Phonemes - smallest distinctive unit of sound

• Different languages have different amount of phonemes 
  

• Morphemes - smallest unit of meaning  

• Un/friend/ly - 3 morphemes 

• Dog/s - 2 morphemes 

• Walk/ed - 2 morphemes 
  

• Grammar - rules of language with  2 subsets 

• Semantics (meaning of words) 

• Syntax (how to order words)

What are the different stages of learning languages? 

1. Receptive Language (~4 months) 

• Baby understands what is being said

• Can’t generate, but can receive 

7 months - can segment sounds (distinguish separate words from each other

2. Productive Language (~6 months) 

• Babies start to babble - make sounds w consonants and vowels over a wide variety of languages 

• Parents reinforce their children and acknowledge words used in their language to help the child learn 

3. One word stage ( 1 - 2 years ) 

• Use one word to identify something - nouns

4. Two word stage ( 18 months ) 

• Combining verbs and nouns with proper syntax 

What brain areas are involved in language processing and speech? 

• Either to Broca’s area → impairs speaking 

Broca’s area: left hemisphere, helps language expression, muscle movements in speech 

• OR Wernicke’s area → impairs understanding 

Wernicke’s area: left temporal l

Linguistic Determinism

hypothesis that language determines the way we think  

Purpose of Tests

Tests are supposed to eliminate biased evaluations of people based on class, sex, race, physical appearance 

• Tests sometimes report that ppl are not capable when they are; they've been developed to not take account the different ways people do the same job

Galton (1884) - IQ tests 

believed that IQ was reflected by superior sensory acuity and physical attributes

• Muscle power, big heads → big brain, intelligence 

Binet and Simon  (1905) - IQ tests 

MENTAL ABILITIES

• People's ability to imagine, remember, to use their mind 

  Made a distinction b/w 

  Chronological age - actual age 

  Mental age -  referred to a kids performance on a test expressed in years compared to typical performance at that age \

• Intelligence Quotient: [ mental age / chronological age x 100 ]

Weshler’s Deviation IQ Score

• Currently used 

• Compares a score to the scores of other people in the same age group 

• Average performance for a given group is set at 100 (regardless of age) 

Determines how far a person's score deviates from the mean score (normal distribution)

 General intelligence

General intelligence (g) : underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test 

• Charles Spearman

Fluid intelligence

Fluid intelligence (Gf) : our ability to reason speedily and abstractly

• Tends to decrease with age, esp during late adulthood 

Crystallized Intelligence 

Crystallized intelligence (Gc): our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills 

• Tends to increase with age

• Our Gf and Gc often work together, when we solve problems by drawing on stored knowledge 

• Gf and Gc bridge the gap from general intelligence to specific abilities 
  

CHC theory

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory: The theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities bridged by Gf and Gc 

What are the concepts  Gardners intelligence theory? 

• Howard Gardner has identified eight intelligences (linguistic, mathematical. Musical, spatial, bodily, intrapersonal, interpersonal and naturalist) 

• Also proposed a ninth possible intelligence; 

Existential intelligence: the ability to ponder large questions about life, death and existence 

What are the three Steinberg intelligences? 

Analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence

• Assessed by intelligence tests

  Convergent Thinking → different options and answers that converge into the right answer 

  • Traditional intelligence tests (multiple choice questions) 

Creative intelligence (creativity and insight)

• Abilities to invent, discover, suppose, and theorize 

  Divergent Thinking  → particular problem to solve with a variety of different options; trying to figure out which one is the best 

Practical intelligence (street smarts) 

• adapt to the demands of ones environment, apply knowledge in practical situations 

What is emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence:  the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions 

• Perceiving emotions → recognizing them in faces, music, and stories, identifying one’s own emotions 

• Understanding emotions → predicting them and how they may change and blend 

• Managing emotions → knowing how to express them in diff situations, how to handle others  emotions 

Using emotions → use creative thinking

Standardization - test construction 

• Produce questions that can distinguish or discriminate - to distinguish ppl who know/understand content from those who don't 

  • Weaving out questions that don't bring value to the test 

• Provide a set of standards or norms by which to judge what a given score means 

  • Normal distribution 

  • Comparing marks to other individuals who took the test; Did others score lower or higher in relation to yours?

Reliability - test construction 

Reliability - consistency in scores 

Types of reliability measures  

1. Test-retest: the SAME test is regiven to the same people at least at  2 different times 

2. Test-retest (with ALTERNATE forms) - using a DIFFERENT version 

3. Split test reliability: to determine if all items are really measuring determine the same thing  

Validity - test construction

1.  Content validity: test material logically represents what it’s designed to measure 
   

2. Predictive validity : when test a score  can predict a particular behaviour (behaviour criterion) 

What are the two main views of intelligence? 

1. Intelligence reflects a general capacity for reasoning and problem solving 

• Spearman → G Factor 

2. IQ is a set of individual abilities (not a general trait) 

   1. A set of containers with different skills 
      

To discern between the two: 

Factor analysis: determines whether questions on a test or across tests are related each other 

Longitudinal study vs cross sectional study

Longitudinal study → examine how intelligence changes in the sample ppl over a lifespan

Cross sectional study →  examine the intelligence of ppl now at various life stages 

Nature-Nurture Controversy - FAMILY STUDIES

Family Studies - assess the influence of heredity on IQ by examining blood relatives and seeing how similar they are on IQ scores 

• If closely related pairs of highly correlated IQ scores → genetics 

Nature-Nurture Controversy - TWIN STUDIES 

Twin Studies - the IQ of identical twin pairs was compared to that fraternal twins 

• Identical twins reared together has a HIGHER correlation than identical twins reared apart 

• Environment plays as a factor

Nature-Nurture Controversy - ADOPTION STUDIES 

Adoption Studies - adopted kids are compared to the adopted and biological parents 

• Correlation b/w adopted parent and kid vs biological parent and kid 

  • See how highly correlated intelligence is 

Intelligence + Genetics + Environment

Reaction range → refers to the genetically determined limits on IQ (20-25IQ points)

• Implies that genetics determines your IQ

• Theoretical because you can’t exactly calculate 

Heritability of IQ → extent to which IQ scores can be attributed to genetics 

Flynn Effect → Finding that performance on IQ tests have increased over generations 

• Increased performance is due to need of increased mental performance to better adapt/cope w changing modern environment 

Stereotype Threat 

Knowing that you can be stereotyped for who you are can negatively impact your performance