apes unit 1

GPP (gross primary productivity)

all energy being made by plants NPP+R=GPP the total rate at which plants and other photosynthetic producers capture and convert solar energy into chemical energy

NPP (net primary productivity)

NPP=GPP-R What is left over (for other consumers) after respiration; the rate at which plants and other producers store chemical energy as new biomass, after subtracting the energy they use for cellular respiration

Tiaga

• Temperature: Cold; long, harsh winters and short, cool summers

• Precipitation: Moderate; mostly snow

• Dominant Producers: Coniferous trees (spruce, pine, fir)

• Dominant Consumers: Moose, bears, wolves, lynx, hares

• Major Characteristic: Dense evergreen forests adapted to cold climates

Temperate rainforest

• Temperature: Mild; cool summers and mild winters

• Precipitation: Very high; frequent rain and fog

• Dominant Producers: Large trees (Douglas fir, redwood, spruce), ferns, mosses

• Dominant Consumers: Deer, bears, elk, owls, insects

• Major Characteristics: Dense forests, very tall trees, high biodiversity, thick layers of moss and ferns, nutrient-rich/organic soil, frequent fog, moist environmen

Temperate seasonal forest

• Temperature: Moderate; warm summers and cold winters

• Precipitation: Moderate to high; fairly evenly distributed

• Dominant Producers: Deciduous trees (oak, maple, beech), shrubs, grasses

• Dominant Consumers: Deer, squirrels, rabbits, foxes, birds

• Major Characteristics: Trees lose leaves seasonally, four distinct seasons, fertile soil, moderate biodiversity, layered vegetation, lots of leaf litter

Tropical rainforest

• Temperature: Warm year-round; little seasonal variation

• Precipitation: Very high; frequent rainfall year-round

• Dominant Producers: Tall trees, vines, ferns, orchids, mosses

• Dominant Consumers: Monkeys, jaguars, sloths, birds, insects

• Major Characteristics: Extremely high biodiversity, dense vegetation, layered canopy, rapid decomposition, nutrient-poor soil, warm and humid climate

Shrubland

• Temperature: Warm/hot summers; mild winters

• Precipitation: Low to moderate; often seasonal

• Dominant Producers: Shrubs, grasses, small trees, herbs

• Dominant Consumers: Deer, rabbits, coyotes, insects, birds

• Major Characteristics: Dense woody shrubs, frequent wildfires, drought-resistant plants, dry summers, adapted to periodic fires, moderate biodiversity

Temperate grassland

• Temperature: Hot summers; cold winters

• Precipitation: Moderate; often seasonal

• Dominant Producers: Grasses, wildflowers, herbs

• Dominant Consumers: Bison, pronghorn, prairie dogs, grasshoppers, coyotes

• Major Characteristics: Few trees, fertile soil, large open plains, frequent fires, drought-resistant grasses, grazing animals are common

savanna

• Temperature: Warm/hot year-round; distinct wet and dry seasons

• Precipitation: Moderate; mostly during wet season

• Dominant Producers: Grasses, acacia trees, baobab trees, shrubs

• Dominant Consumers: Elephants, zebras, giraffes, wildebeest, gazelles

• Major Characteristics: Open grasslands with scattered trees, seasonal rainfall, frequent fires, drought-resistant vegetation, large grazing herds, high temperatures

desert

• Temperature: Very hot days; cool/cold nights

• Precipitation: Very low; less than 25 cm/year

• Dominant Producers: Cacti, succulents, desert grasses, shrubs

• Dominant Consumers: Camels, kangaroo rats, lizards, scorpions, snakes

• Major Characteristics: Very dry climate, sparse vegetation, sandy/rocky soil, drought-resistant organisms, extreme day-night temperature changes, organisms conserve water

tundra

• Temperature: Very cold; long winters and short, cool summers

• Precipitation: Very low; mostly snow

• Dominant Producers: Mosses, lichens, grasses, small shrubs

• Dominant Consumers: Caribou, musk oxen, Arctic hares, Arctic foxes, snowy owls

• Major Characteristics: Permafrost, treeless landscape, short growing season, low biodiversity, strong winds, cold-adapted organisms

streams/rivers

• Define: Flowing freshwater systems that move water from higher to lower elevations

• Depth: Usually shallow; varies from headwaters to lower river sections

• Flow: Continuously flowing; generally faster in streams and upper rivers

• Salinity: Very low; freshwater

• Turbidity: Usually low–moderate; can increase after storms or erosion

• Nutrient Availability: Moderate; nutrients are continuously transported downstream

• 3 Examples: Mississippi River, Amazon River, Colorado River

lake-litorial zone

• Define: Shallow area along the lake’s shoreline where sunlight reaches the bottom

• Depth: Shallow; usually the sunlit region near shore

• Flow: Little to no flow; mostly still water

• Salinity: Very low; freshwater

• Turbidity: Low–moderate; can increase from sediment runoff

• Nutrient Availability: High; nutrients enter from runoff and decomposing organisms

• 3 Examples: Lake Tahoe, Lake Michigan, Great Salt Lake

lake limnetic zone

• Define: Open-water area away from the shore; sunlight reaches most of the zone

• Depth: Moderate to deep; extends from surface to the depth sunlight can reach

• Flow: Mostly still; water moves slowly

• Salinity: Very low; freshwater

• Turbidity: Usually low; can increase from algae or sediment

• Nutrient Availability: Moderate; nutrients support abundant plankton

• 3 Examples: Lake Tahoe, Lake Superior, Lake Michigan

wetlands

• Define: Land covered or saturated with water for all/part of the year

• Depth: Shallow; usually less than a few meters

• Flow: Slow-moving or still water

• Salinity: Usually low; can be freshwater or saltwater

• Turbidity: Moderate–high; often contains suspended sediments

• Nutrient Availability: High; nutrient-rich water and soils

• 3 Examples: Florida Everglades, Okavango Delta, Louisiana coastal wetlands

intertidal zone

• Define: Coastal area between the high and low tide lines

• Depth: Shallow; exposed to air during low tide

• Flow: Constantly changing due to tides and waves

• Salinity: High; saltwater

• Turbidity: Moderate–high; stirred up by waves and sediment

• Nutrient Availability: High; nutrients from ocean water and decomposing organisms

• 3 Examples: Rocky shores, sandy beaches, tide pools

estuaries

• Define: Areas where freshwater from rivers mixes with saltwater from the ocean

• Depth: Shallow; sunlight reaches much of the water

• Flow: Slow-moving; influenced by tides and river flow

• Salinity: Brackish; varies with tides and freshwater input

• Turbidity: Moderate–high; lots of suspended sediment

• Nutrient Availability: Very high; nutrients come from rivers and ocean water

• 3 Examples: Chesapeake Bay, San Francisco Bay, Mississippi River Delta

ocean photic zone

• Define: Upper ocean layer where enough sunlight penetrates for photosynthesis

• Depth: Surface to about 200 m (660 ft)

• Flow: Constantly moving; influenced by currents, waves, and tides

• Salinity: High; about 35 ppt

• Turbidity: Usually low; varies with plankton and sediment

• Nutrient Availability: Moderate; nutrients can be limited near the surface

• 3 Examples: Sunlit open ocean, coral reefs, coastal waters

ocean aphotic zone

• Define: Deep ocean zone where little/no sunlight reaches

• Depth: Below about 200 m (660 ft)

• Flow: Slow-moving; affected by deep ocean currents

• Salinity: High; about 35 ppt

• Turbidity: Usually low; can increase from particles and sediments

• Nutrient Availability: High; nutrients accumulate from sinking organic matter

• 3 Examples: Deep Pacific Ocean, Mariana Trench, Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Carbon Reservoirs

• Atmosphere: CO₂ and methane (CH₄)

• Biosphere: Plants, animals, microorganisms

• Soil: Dead organic matter and stored carbon

• Oceans: Largest active carbon reservoir

• Lithosphere: Rocks, sediments, fossil fuels

What adds CO2

Respiration + decomposition + combustion

What removes CO2

photosynthesis

Effects of increasing atmospheric CO2

Greenhouse effect and ocean acidification

Carbon sink

___ is any natural or artificial system that absorbs more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than it releases (ex forests and ocean)

what percent of the atmosphere is carbon

0.012

legumes

specific family of plants (Fabaceae) characterized by seed-bearing pods and a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. critical role in the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle and sustainable agricultural practices

Rhizobium Bacteria

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules of legumes

Nitrogen Fixation

The process where atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) is converted into ammonia/ammonium (NH₃/NH₄⁺), a form plants can use. This is mainly done by specialized bacteria.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria

specialized microorganisms that convert inert atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) into usable chemical compounds like ammonia and ammonium, which plants need to grow

nitrifying bacteria

essential microorganisms that convert toxic ammonia into safe nitrates, driving the natural nitrogen cycle in soils and aquatic systems

nitrates

essential nitrogen-and-oxygen chemical compounds that plants use as nutrients, but high levels from agricultural runoff cause water pollution and eutrophication

Nitrification

Bacteria convert NH₄⁺ → NO₂⁻ (nitrite)→ NO₃(nitrates)⁻. Nitrates are an important form of nitrogen that plants can absorb.

Assimilation

Plants absorb nitrates (NO₃⁻) and ammonium (NH₄⁺) from soil and use the nitrogen to build proteins, DNA, and other molecules.

Ammonification

Decomposers break down dead organisms and waste, converting organic nitrogen back into ammonium (NH₄⁺) in the soil.

denitrification

Bacteria convert nitrates (NO₃⁻) back into atmospheric nitrogen (N₂), returning nitrogen to the atmosphere.

Predation

An interaction where one organism (the predator) hunts, kills, and eats another organism (the prey). It benefits the predator and harms the prey. Ex. wolf and deer

intraspecific competition

Definition: Competition between individuals of the same species for limited resources such as food, water, shelter, territory, or mates. Ex:

1. Two male deer competing for a mate.

2. Two oak trees competing for sunlight, water, and nutrients.

interspecific competition

Definition: Competition between individuals of different species for the same limited resources, such as food, water, space, or shelter. EX:

1. Lions and hyenas competing for prey.

2. Trees and grasses competing for sunlight, water, and nutrients.

competitive exclusion

two species with identical ecological niches cannot coexist indefinitely in the same place when resources are limited

niche

The role and position of a species within an ecosystem, including how it uses resources, where it lives, what it eats, and how it interacts with other organisms.

resource partitioning

When different species divide up limited resources by using them in different ways, allowing them to coexist and reducing competition.

mutualism

A relationship between two different species where both organisms benefit from the interaction.

commensalism

A relationship between two different species where one organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed

parasitism

A relationship between two different species where one organism (the parasite) benefits while the host is harmed. The parasite usually lives on or inside the host and takes nutrients from it.

biotic

Any living or once-living component of an ecosystem that affects other organisms.

abiotic

Any nonliving physical or chemical component of an ecosystem that affects organisms

producer

An organism that makes its own food, usually through photosynthesis, and forms the base of the food chain by providing energy to other organisms.

Ex: grass, algee

primary consumer

An organism that gets energy by eating producers (plants or algae). Primary consumers are usually herbivores and occupy the second trophic level.

Ex; rabbit, zebra

secondary consumer

An organism that gets energy by eating primary consumers. Secondary consumers are usually carnivores or omnivores and occupy the third trophic level.

Ex: snake, fox

tertiary consumers

an organism that gets energy by eating secondary consumers. They are often top predators and occupy the fourth trophic level.

Ex; hawk, orca

detritivores

An organism that feeds on dead organic matter and waste, breaking it into smaller pieces and helping recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.

Ex; earthworms, millipides

detritus

Dead organic matter and waste found in an ecosystem, such as dead leaves, animal remains, and feces. It provides nutrients and energy for decomposers and detritivores.

Ex; fallen leaves, dead animals

decomposers

Organisms that break down dead organisms and waste into simpler substances, releasing nutrients back into the soil and ecosystem.

Ex; fungi, bacteria

percolation

The downward movement of water through soil and porous rock due to gravity, allowing water to move from the soil surface toward groundwater.

• It recharges groundwater supplies, transports dissolved nutrients and minerals through soil, and helps naturally filter water as it moves underground.

infiltration

The process by which water on the ground surface enters and soaks into the soil through pores and spaces between soil particles.

• reduces surface runoff, replenishes soil moisture, and allows water to eventually reach groundwater through percolation

transpiration

The process by which plants release water vapor into the atmosphere through small openings called stomata, primarily in their leaves.

• moves water and nutrients from roots to leaves, contributes to the water cycle, and helps cool plants.

surface runoff

The movement of water across the surface of the land when precipitation cannot infiltrate the soil quickly enough or the ground is saturated.

• carries water, nutrients, sediment, and pollutants into rivers, lakes, and oceans, while also contributing to erosion and flooding

absorption

The process by which water is taken up by plant roots from the soil and enters the plant’s vascular system.

• provides plants with the water needed for photosynthesis, nutrient transport, and growth, and allows water to eventually move to the atmosphere through transpiration.

perciptation

Water that falls from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail after water vapor condenses.

• replenishes freshwater supplies, provides water for ecosystems and agriculture, and supplies water that can infiltrate soil, become runoff, or enter groundwater.

vapor transport

The movement of water vapor through the atmosphere, primarily carried by wind and air currents from one location to another.

• redistributes water around the planet, moving moisture from areas of high evaporation to areas where it can later condense and fall as precipitation.

condensation

The process where water vapor cools and changes from a gas into liquid water, forming tiny water droplets.

• forms clouds and makes precipitation possible, returning atmospheric water to the liquid form in the water cycle.

evaporation

The process where liquid water absorbs energy from the surroundings and changes into water vapor (gas), primarily from oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil.

• moves water from Earth’s surface into the atmosphere, providing moisture that contributes to cloud formation and precipitation.

groundwater flow

The movement of water through saturated layers of soil and permeable rock below Earth’s surface, generally flowing from areas of higher elevation or pressure toward lower areas.

• recharges wells, springs, rivers, and other water sources and transports water through underground aquifers, helping maintain freshwater supplies.

inorganic phosphorus

exists in nonliving forms, primarily as phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻) found in rocks, soil, and water, rather than being part of living organisms.

• is absorbed by plants and converted into organic phosphorus, making it essential for DNA, RNA, ATP, and cell growth throughout ecosystems.

organic phosphorus

bound to carbon-containing molecules and is found within living organisms and their remains, such as DNA, RNA, and cell membranes.

• essential for energy transfer, genetic material, and cell growth and is returned to soil and water when organisms die or produce waste.

Phosphorus Reservoirs

sedimentary rocks and ocean sediments

guano

The accumulated droppings of seabirds or bats, which contain high concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen.

• acts as a natural fertilizer, adding phosphorus and nitrogen to soil and making these nutrients available for plant growth.

phosphorus cycle

The movement of phosphorus through rocks, soil, water, and living organisms, primarily as phosphate, without a significant atmospheric phase.

• recycles an essential nutrient needed for DNA, ATP, and cell membranes, while maintaining phosphorus availability for plant and ecosystem growth.

geological uplift

moves phosphorus-rich rocks from the ocean floor up to the land surface so wind, rain, and weathering can break them down and restart the nutrient cycle

respiration

the metabolic process where living cells break down organic molecules like glucose using oxygen to release usable energy (ATP), while producing carbon dioxide and water as waste

primary productivity

the rate at which plants and other producers convert solar or chemical energy into organic compounds