Biology

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DNA

The molecule carrying genetic instructions in all living organisms, discovered by Miescher, Franklin, Chargaff, Wilkins, Watson, and Crick.

DNA Structure and Base Pairing

DNA is a double helix made of nucleotide chains with bases (adenine-thymine, cytosine-guanine) forming complementary pairs.

Chromatids and Centromere

Chromatids are two identical copies of DNA held by a centromere on a chromosome.

Karyotype and Chromosomes

XX denotes female, XY denotes male, and an extra 21 chromosome leads to Down syndrome.

DNA Replication

Process involving unzipping, complementary base pairing, and synthesis of new strands during mitosis.

DNA Helicase and DNA Polymerase

Helicase unwinds DNA strands, while DNA polymerase synthesizes new strands during replication.

Semi-conservative Replication

DNA replication results in two identical molecules, proven by the Meselson-Stahl experiment.

Protein Synthesis

DNA transcribed into mRNA, which binds to ribosomes, and tRNA pairs with mRNA to form amino acids during translation.

Chromosome Structure

Thread-like structures in cell nuclei made of chromatin, consisting of two chromatids held by a centromere.

Cell Division Importance

Cell division allows growth, cell replacement, and reproduction in organisms.

Mitosis Process (IPMAT)

Cell division stages involving interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.

Mitosis Diagrams

Illustrations showing the phases of mitosis.

Importance of Mitosis

Enables asexual reproduction, growth, and cell replacement in organisms.

Mitosis Stages in Root Tips

Examination of different mitosis stages in root tips.

Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Gamete Formation

Events during the cell cycle and gamete production in eukaryotes.

Haploid and Diploid

Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes, while diploid cells have two sets inherited from both parents.

Meiosis Chromosome Movement

Describes chromosome behavior during meiosis I and meiosis II.

Meiosis and Genetic Variation

Independent assortment and random fertilization contribute to genetic diversity in sexually reproducing organisms.

Meiosis Micrographs

Images showing different stages of meiosis.

Mitosis vs

Comparison of the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

Mendel's Work

Austrian monk who established inheritance principles through pea plant experiments.

Mendel's Inheritance Principles

Laws of Segregation and Independent Assortment governing genetic inheritance.

Reginald C Punnett

Developed Punnett Square for genetic predictions and contributed to gene linkage studies.

Genetics Terminology

Definitions of terms like chromosome, allele, genotype, phenotype, and more in genetics.

Genotypes and Phenotypes

Genetic makeup (genotype) and observable traits (phenotype) of organisms.

Inheritance Patterns

Autosomal dominant inheritance and identification in genetic data.

Autosomal Recessive

Traits passed from both parents to their child.

X-linked Dominant

Genetic trait passed through mutations on a single X chromosome.

X-linked Recessive

Genetic trait passed through mutations on the X chromosome.

Polygenic Inheritance

Inheritance of a trait controlled by multiple genes.

Monogenic Inheritance - Earlobes

Single gene with two alleles controls earlobe attachment.

Polygenic Inheritance - Height

Height influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors.

Sex-linked Inheritance

Traits influenced by genes on sex chromosomes.

Mutation

Formation of new genetic material/combinations.

Gene Pool

Total genetic information of breeding individuals in a population.

Natural Selection

Process by which selection pressure changes a population.

Evolution

Cumulative changes in allele frequencies in a population over time.

Mechanisms of Evolution

Mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow.

Mutation Types

Somatic, germline, chromosomal, gene mutations.

Selection Pressures

Factors leading to survival mechanisms in organisms.

Natural Selection Stages

Variation, overproduction, selection, adaptation, heredity.

Convergent Evolution

Species with different origins develop similar features.

Divergent Evolution

Two species evolve differently from a common ancestor.

Asexual Reproduction

One parent produces genetically identical offspring.

Methods of Asexual Reproduction

Binary fission, budding, spore formation, vegetative propagation, parthenogenesis.

Sexual Reproduction

Requires fusion of sperm and egg from two parents.