psyc 3700 , final exam / unit 4 ( 3 chapters ) .

the science & politics of studying sex and gender |

~ study of sex differences is controversial ,

~ some worry that findings of sex differences might be used to support political agendas or status quo .

arguments |

* findings of sex differences merely reflect gender stereotypes rather than real differences ,

* any discovery of sex differences merely reflects biases of scientists rather than objective descriptions of reality ( ex ; confirmation bias ) ,

* the whole discussion is limiting in terms of defining people .

arguments ( 2 ) ^

^ ~ some advocate stopping research on sex differences as the findings might conflict w / the ideas of egalitarianism ,

~ others argue that scientific psychology and social change will be impossible w / o coming to terms with real sex differences that exist .

what does science demand of us as we look at issues with political implications ? is science a self - correcting process ? |

* donna haraway challenges the concept of objectivity in science as often explained as a " conquering gaze from nowhere " , she describes such as " god trick " as all knowledge is situated ,

* we must strive for " faithful accounts of the real world " while being mindful of the limitations of objectivity .

calculation of effect size : how large are the sex differences ? |

( * meta - analysis : across , large , etc ) ,

~ meta - analysis yields an effect size or d statistic ,

^ used to express the difference in standard deviation units .

~ effect size can be calculated for each study of sex differences and then averaged across studies to give an objective assessment of the difference .

^ interpretation of effect sizes |

.20 = small difference .

.50 = medium difference .

.80 = large difference .

* even the large effect size for the average sex difference does not necessarily have implications for any particular individual .

~ positive d means

men score higher than women ,

~ negative d means

women score higher than men ,

* know these ( important ) |

* distance throwing a ball | d = 2.00 ( men scored higher , large difference ) .

* verbal ability | d = -.11 ( women scored higher , smaller difference ) .

* math ability | d = .15 ( men scored higher , smaller difference ) .

* spatial ability | d = .73 ( men scored higher , medium - large difference ) .

sex differences : temperament in children |

~ inhibitory control : ability to inhibit & control responses ( control your impulses , I'm able to be less impulsive ) ; d = -.41 ,

~ impulsivity control ; d = -.72 ,

~ surgency : approach behavior , high activity , impulsivity ; d = .38 .

sex differences in personality |

~ extraversion ( overall d =.15 ) ,

women score higher on gregariousness ( someone who comes in and livens / lightens up the room ) , ( d = -.26) ,

women score higher on warmth ( d = -.29 ) ,

men score higher on assertiveness ( d = .24 ) ,

~ agreeableness ( overall d = -.32 ) ,

women are most trusting ( d = -.25 ) and tender - minded ( emotional , empathy ) ( d = -.97 ) than men ,

women smile more than men ,

~ conscientiousness ( overall d = -.14 ) ,

order ( d = -.24 ) ,

~ emotional stability here meaning emotional expressiveness ( overall d = -.49 ) ,

anxiety ( d = -.54 ) ,

fearfulness ( d = -1.04 ) ,

~ openness ( overall d = -.07 ) ,

fantasy ( d = -.31 ) ,

feelings ( d = -.42 ) ,

* overall d scores are from mccrae et. al;. 2005 , a meta - analysis across 50 cultures as part of the personality profiles of culture project , the breakdown of specific aspects of each dimension is from subsequent studies .

^ self - esteem ,

~ results from meta - analyses ,

~ across ages , effect size is small with males scoring higher ,

~ between the ages 11 and 18 the gap widens , and it closes between the ages 19 and 59 .

^ sexuality |

here are large differences in the interest in casual sex and the number of lifetime sex partners desired ,

~ people - things dimension : vocational interests ,

* men tend to score more toward the " things " end ,

* women tend to score more toward the " people " end ,

^ aggressiveness |

~ men are physically aggressive ,

~ noticed in personality tests , in fantasies , and manifest behavior ,

effect sizes are the largest in the TAT ( d = .86 ) , and the smallest for self - report measures of aggression ( d = .40 ) , and fantasy ,

~ differences can have profound consequences for everyday life ,

~ men commit 90 percent of homicides worldwide ,

~ men commit more violent crimes of all sorts ,

~ sex difference in violent crimes accompanies puberty , peaking in adolescence and the early 20s .

sex differences in depression : a closer look |

~ in childhood , there are no sex differences .

~ after puberty , women show a depression rate twice that of men , why ?

rumination |

* repeatedly focusing on one's symptoms or distress ,

* women ruminate more , which contributes to the perseverance of depressive symptoms ,

* largest sex difference is between the ages 18 and 44 ,

~ after that , the sexes start to converge again .

^ continued :

^ ~ depressed women are more often report excessive eating than depressed men ,

~ women more likely to cry , men be aggressive ,

~ women more likely to seek treatment , men miss work ,

~ nervous activity more often in women than men ,

~ college students : men more likely to use drugs , women hurt feelings .

1 ) men commit approximately ___ % of homicides worldwide ?

d = 90 percent .

2 ) donna haraway = ?

b = total objectivity ; " god trick " .

3 ) the d statistic is used to express gender differences in ___ units ?

a = standard deviation .

4 ) a " d " statistic of -.97 on a personality trait indicates that ?

a = women are higher .

5 ) women tend to score higher than men on the __ facet of agreeableness = ?

c = tender mindedness .

| masculinity , femininity , androgyny , and sex roles ~

~ in the 1930s , researchers assumed that sex differences on various personality items were attributable to differences along the single dimension of masculinity - femininity ,

but perhaps someone could score high both on masculinity and femininity ,

this led to the concept of androgyny ( idea that some people can melt together traditional roles of men and women ) ^ .

gender stereotypes |

components ^ ~

cognitive ,

affective ,

behavioral ,

content of gender stereotypes ^ ~

attributes we believe men and women possess ,

similar across cultures ,

e.g., women are perceived as more communal , or oriented toward the group , whereas men are perceived as more instrumental , asserting independence from the group .

prejudice and gender stereotypes ^ ~

gender stereotypes can have important real-life consequences for men and women ,

consequences can damage people in their health , jobs , chances for advancement , and social reputations .

theories of sex differences |

~ socialization and social roles ,

~ hormonal theories ,

~ evolutionary psychology theory ,

~ an integrated theoretical perspective .

( socialization and social roles ) ~

~ studies about gender expectations in parents ,

~ boys and girls become different because boys are reinforced by parents , teachers , and the media for being " masculine " and girls for being " feminine " , toys , etc .

bandura's social learning theory |

~ boys and girls learn by observing behaviors of others of their own sex

* some research supports socialization and social learning theories of sex differences ,

~ cross - cultural evidence for different treatment of boys and girls exists .

problems |

simple theory that causal arrow runs one way ( parents to children ) is open to question ,

no account of the origins of sex - differentiated socialization practices ,

why do parents want their children to grow up with gender - defining behaviors ?

social role theory |

~ sex differences arise because men and women are distributed differently into different occupational and family roles ,

~ some research supports social role theory ,

problem ~ no account of the origin of sex - differentiated roles .

biological factors |

~ live births in US over 60 years : 104 to close to 106 males for every 100 females ,

* national vital statistics reports 1940 - 2002 .

hormonal theories |

hormonal , physiological differences causes boys and girls to diverge over development ,

following puberty , there is no overlap in the levels of circulating testosterone ,

* men's testosterone levels are about 10 times higher than women ,

sex differences in testosterone are linked w / traditional sex differences in behavior , such as aggression , dominance , career choice , and sexual desire ,

( problem ) ~ research suggests that the link between hormones and behavior is bidirectional ( i . e . winning at sports ) , and there are no accounts of origin of hormonal differences .

evolutionary psychology theory |

sexes are predicted to differ only in those domains in which people are recurrently faced with different adaptive problems ( problems must be solved to survive and reproduce ) ,

research supports many predicted sex differences , especially in sexuality ,

it would predict that women would be more selective as to sex partners .

an integrated theoretical perspective |

integrated theory of sex differences would take all levels of analysis into account ( socialization , hormonal , and evolutionary ) because they are compatible with each other .

National Center for Educational Statistics ,

2017 US College Enrollment ,

~ females 56% ,

~ males ( lower percentage rate ) .

richard reeves |

recent studies of people in US indicate :

~ men 4 times more likely to die by suicide than women ,

~ 71 % of opioid deaths are men ,

~ rise in median earnings of men without college degrees since 1979 is 3 % ( women make 85 - 88 cents for every dollar men make across all degrees ) ,

~ 14 % percentage point fewer boys than girls are ready for school by age 5 ,

~ 17 % percentage point gap between males and females recovering bachelor's degrees ,

~ 1 in 3 children six years after parents separate don't see their father at all .

predisposition model |

the reason there are links between personality traits and illness is due to the third factor of predisposition due to genetics .

illness behavior model |

normal physiological sensations > heightened perception of and attention to sensations > labeling of sensations as illness > health behaviors , such as going to the doctor ,

^ personality ,

reports of symptoms .

the concept of stress |

stress is a subjective feeling produced by events perceived as uncontrollable and threatening ,

( stressors ) ~

* events that lead to stress ,

* common attributes ,

* stressors produce a state of feeling overwhelmed ,

* produce opposing tendencies , such as wanting and not wanting some activity or object ,

* perceived as uncontrollable ( dependent upon the resources ) ,

( * to some degree , stress is what you make it ; but how you deal w / it , how overwhelming or uncontrollable it is , is based on the individual ) .

stress response |

flight - or - fight response - increase of sympathetic nervous system activity ,

~ person is startled , heart beat and blood pressure increase , and palms and feet become sweaty .

General Adaptation Syndrome | ( GAS )

alarm stage : fight - or flight response ,

if stressor continues , the resistance stage begins

body uses its resources at above an average rate , even though fight - or - flight response has subsided ,

if stressor is constant , the person enters the stage of exhaustion

a person is susceptible to illness , because physiological resources are depleted .

body's response |

~ alarm stage and reaction :

sympathetic nervous system is activated ,

adrenal gland is stimulated ,

adrenal gland secretes adrenalin and corticosteroids ,

these hormones are distributed to liver , heart , lungs for fight or flight ,

pituitary gland secretes endorphins , natural painkillers ,

if the stressor passes , then parasympathetic activates .

~ resistance state :

if threat persists the sympathetic system remains activated at a lower level , if threat is addressed body goes back to a more day - to - day level of response ,

if not addressed , there is depletion of bodily resources .

~ exhaustion stage :

if threat persists constant high levels of adrenalin and cortisol ,

susceptibility of illness and disease .

sources of stress : major life events |

identified as both positive and negative events that are stressors ,

people who experienced most stress are more likely to have a serious illness over the next year ,

~ subsequent experimental work suggests that people under chronic stress deplete bodily resources and become vulnerable to infections ,

~ current interpretation is that stress lowers the functioning of the immune system , leading to lowered immunity to infection and resulting illness .

sources of stress : daily hassles |

~ daily hassles are the major sources of stress in most people's lives ,

~ research indicates that people with a lot of minor stress suffer more from psychological and physical symptoms .

approach - approach conflict | + +

( example ) ~ see the latest superhero movie , see the latest comedy .

avoidance - avoidance conflict | - -

( example ) ~ withdraw from a required class , stay in class and get a D or F .

approach - avoidance | + -

( example ) ~ dogs are cute and cuddly , need to wake up early for walks .

varieties of stress |

acute stress : sudden onset , out of control events , example ; car accident .

episodic acute stress : repeated episodes of acute stress , example ; sales deadline .

traumatic stress ( e . g . , post - traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) : massive traumatic event that may in essence last for months or years , example ~ natural disaster war , assault .

chronic stress : day in , day out stress , example ~ poverty .

~ stress has additive effects , and it accumulates in a person over time .

1 ) higher levels of ___ have been linked to men having higher levels of aggression and ___ ?

b = ( testosterone ; dominance ) .

2 ) US college enrollment ... ?

b = more women are enrolled than men .

3 ) a clemson student really wants to go to a movie , but also wants to stay at home and start a new book ?

a = approach - approach conflict .

4 ) a monthly sales deadline ... ?

a = episodic acute .

5 ) holmes and rahe used the ___ ... ?

d = SRRS .

minimum wage |

SC $7.25 / hour ,

before taxes $290 / week ; $15,080 / year ,

after taxes ( federal , SC , SS , medicare ) $264.43 , $1,057.74 / month , $13,750.58 / year .

type a personality and cardiovascular disease |

( * personality can influence cardiovascular health ) .

~ type a is NOT categorical , rather on continuum ,

~ early studies of type a found it was an independent risk factor for developing cardiovascular disease ,

~ used structured interviews ,

~ later research used self - report surveys .

substraits of type a |

~ competitive achievement motivation :someone who likes recognition and power , work hard , achieve goals ,

~ time urgency : hate wasting time , in a hurry to get things done , two things at once ,

~ hostility : when goals are blocked , frustration resulting in aggression and hostility ( this is the one that more likely blocks arteries , blocks the flow of blood away from your heart , etc ) .

type a personality and cardiovascular disease | 2

~ studies using surveys are less likely to find relationships between type a , and heart disease than studies using structured interview ,

~ structured interview gets at the lethal component of type a ,

~ hostility is the key and is linked to cardiovascular inflammation and heart disease ,

~ type a : hostility appears to be an independent factor in heart disease .

primary and secondary appraisal |

~ stress is in the subjective reaction of a person to potential stressors ,

~ according to lazarus ( 1991 ) , in order for stress to be evoked , two cognitive events must occur ,

primary appraisal | person perceives an event as a threat to his / her goals ,

secondary appraisal | person concludes that he / she does not have resources to cope with demands of the threatening event .

the role of positive emotions in coping with stress : a closer look | ( * know all three ) .

general hypothesis

~ positive emotions and appraisals may lead to a lowered impact of stress on health ,

three coping mechanisms are capable of generating positive emotion during stress ( folkman & moskowitz , 2000 ) ,

positive reappraisal ~ person focuses on the good in what is happening ,

problem - focused coping ~ uses thoughts and behaviors that manage or solve an underlying cause of stress ,

creating positive events ~ creating a positive time - out from stress .

attributional style |

~ answer to the question , " where does the person typically place the blame when things go wrong ? " ,

( three dimensions of attribution ) :

~ external versus internal ,

~ unstable versus stable ,

~ specific versus global ,

different measures ^ ,

~ attributional style questionnaire and content analysis of verbatim explanations ( cave ) .

refinements to the attributional style construct |

optimism / pessimism ( peterson , 2000 )

~ people who make stable , global , and internal explanations for bad events are termed pessimists , whereas people who make unstable , specific , and external explanations for bad events are termed optimists .

dispositional optimism ( scheier & carver , 2000 )

~ expectation that good events will be plentiful and bad events will be rare in the future .

self - efficacy ( bandura , 1986 )

~ belief that one can do behaviors necessary to achieve a desired outcome .

optimistic bias

~ people generally underestimate their risks , with the average person rating risks as below the true average .

optimism and physical well being |

* optimism predicts good health and health - promoting behaviors .

management of emotions |

~ some theorists suggest that emotional inhibition leads to undesirable consequences ,

~ other theorists see emotional inhibition more positively ,

~ chronically inhibited emotion seems to come w / certain " costs " to the nervous system, ,

someone who characteristically inhibits emotional expression may suffer effects of chronic sympathetic nervous system arousal ,

~ emotions serve the function of communicating to others how we are feeling ,

~ research indicates that emotional expressiveness may be good for our psychological health and general adjustment .

disclosure |

~ pennebaker argues that not discussing traumatic , negative , or upsetting events can lead to problems ,

~ telling a secret can relieve stress and improve health ,

~ just writing about a stressful event can lower stress .

what is abnormal ? |

statistical definition ,

~ whatever is different from normal is abnormal ,

social definition ,

~ whatever society does not tolerate ,

* statistical and social definitions are tied to changing social or cultural norms ,

* psychologists thus look within persons , inquiring about subjective feelings and feelings of loneliness .

psychopathology |

~ study of mental disorders ,

^ diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( DSM ) ,

widely accepted system for diagnosing and describing mental disorders .

the building blocks of personality disorders |

~ symptoms of personality disorders can be viewed as maladaptive variations within the domains of traits , emotions , cognitions , motives , and self - concepts ,

~ personality disorders can be thought of as maladaptive variations or combinations of normal personality traits ,

~ several personality disorders involve maladaptive variations on common motives , especially power and intimacy ,

~ cognitive processes can become distorted in personality disorders ,

~ several personality disorders include extreme variations in experienced emotions .

* most personality disorders include distortion of self - concept ,

* social relationships , especially interpersonal and sexual behavior , are frequently distributed or maladaptive in personality disorders ,

* biology forms the building blocks of several personality disorders ,

* disorders of personality can provide insight into the normal workings of personality .

what is a personality disorder ? |

~ enduring pattern of experience and behavior that differs greatly from the expectations of a person's culture ,

~ disorder usually manifests in more than one of the following areas :

thoughts , feelings , sociability , and the ability to control one's own behavior ^ .

~ pattern of behavior is rigid and is displayed across a variety of situations , leading to distress in key areas of life , such as work and relationships

^ .

* typically has a long history in a person's life and is often traced back to adolescence or childhood ,

* must not be caused by drug abuse , medication , or other medical condition ,

~ all personality disorders involve impaired social relationships .

culture , age , and gender : the effect of context |

before defining behavior as revealing personality disorder , the following must be taken into account :

~ culture ,

~ age ,

~ gender .

prevalence of personality disorders |

~ prevalence refers to the total number of cases present within a given population during a particular period of time ,

obsessive - compulsive personality disorder is the most common with a prevalence rate of over 4 % ,

schizotypal , histrionic , and dependent personality disorders have a prevalence rate of about 2 % each ,

narcissistic personality disorder is the least common , with 0.2 % prevalence rate ,

total prevalence rate for having at least one personality disorder is about 11-13 % .

erratic cluster |

* antisocial , borderline , histrionic , narcissistic ,

* problems w / emotional control ,

* difficulties getting along w / others .

antisocial personality disorder ( behavioral ) |

* impulsive , easily irritated , and assaultive ,

* reckless and irresponsible ,

* observable behaviors of chronic lying , chronic criminal behavior , conflicts with authority .

psychopathy ( subjective characteristics ) |

* lack of guilt feelings or remorse ,

* indifferent to the suffering of others ,

* superficial charm .

borderline personality disorder |

symptoms include :

~ frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment

^ ( fear of abandonment = key symptom ) ,

~ a pattern of intense and unstable relationships w / family , friends , and loved ones , often swinging from extreme closeness and love ( idealization ) to extreme dislike or anger ( devaluation ) ,

~ distorted and unstable self - image or sense of self ,

~ impulsive and often dangerous behaviors , such as spending sprees , unsafe sex , substance abuse , reckless driving , and binge eating .

* recurring suicidal behaviors of threats or self - harming behavior , such as cutting , ( often related to mood disorders ) ^ .

* intense and highly changeable moods , w / each episode lasting from a few hours to a few days ,

* chronic feelings of emptiness ,

* inappropriate , intense anger or problems controlling anger ,

* having stress - related paranoid thoughts ,

* having severe dissociative symptoms , such as feeling cut off from oneself , observing oneself from outside the body , or losing touch w / reality .

histrionic personality disorder |

~ self - centeredness , uncomfortable when not the center of attention ,

~ constantly seeking reassurance or approval ,

~ inappropriately seductive appearance or behavior ( = key ) ,

~ rapidly shifting emotional states that appear shallow to others ,

~ overly concerned with physical appearance , and using physical appearance to draw attention to self ,

~ opinions are easily influenced by other people , but difficult to back up w / details .

* excessive dramatics w / exaggerated displays of emotion ,

* tendency to believe that relationships are more intimate than they actually are ,

* is highly suggestible ( easily influenced by others ) .

narcissistic personality disorder |

characteristics ~

* need to be admired ,

* strong sense of self - importance ,

* lack of insight into other people's feelings or needs ,

* sense of entitlement ,

* feelings of superiority ,

* self - esteem appears strong but is fragile ,

* envious of others .

a taxonomy of eleven tactics of manipulation |

~ developed through a two - step procedure ,

nominations of acts of influence ,

factor analysis of self - reports and observer - reports of previously nominated acts .

eleven tactics were identified through this procedure , including charm , coercion , silent treatment , and reason .

sex differences in tactics of manipulation |

~ w / the exception of regression ( crying ) , both men and women perform similar tactics of manipulation .

personality predictors of tactics of manipulation |

* people who score relatively high in dominance tend to use coercion and responsibly invocation

* people who score low in dominance tend to use self - abasement and hardball tactics ,

* highly agreeable people use tactics of pleasure induction and reason ,

* people who disagreeable use tactics of coercion and silent treatment ,

* personality disposition of conscientiousness is associated w / reason ,

* emotionally unstable people use a variety of tactics to manipulate others ,

* most commonly used tactic is regression .

~ tactics used by people high on intellect - openness ,

* reason , pleasure induction , and responsibility invocation ^ .

~ tactic used by people low on intellect - openness ,

* social comparison ^ .

the machiavellian personality : a closer look |

machiavellianism |

~ manipulative strategy of social interaction ,

~ personality style that uses other people as tools for personal gain ,

people who score high on machiavellianism ( " high machs " ) select situations that are loosely structured and untethered by rules that restrict the deployment of exploitative strategy ,

~ " high machs " tend to evoke specific reactions from others , such as anger and retaliation for having been exploited ,

~ " high machs " influence or manipulate others in predictable ways , using tactics that are exploitative , self - serving , and deceptive .

the dark triad =

narcissism , psychopathy , machiavellianism .

the eccentric cluster |

includes schizoid , schizotypal , and paranoid personality disorders .

schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders |

characteristics of schizoid personality disorder ,

~ detached from normal social relationships , indifferent

~ obtains little pleasure from bodily or sensory experiences ,

~ appears inept or socially clumsy ,

~ passive in the face of unpleasant events ,

characteristics of schizotypal personality disorder ,

~ anxious in social relations and avoids people , uncomfortable

~ appears " different " and does not conform ,

~ suspicious of others ,

~ odd and eccentric beliefs ,

~ e.g., belief in ESP or magic ,

~ disorganized thoughts and speech .

paranoid personality disorder |

characteristics ^ ~

* distrustful of others ,

* misinterprets social events as threatening ,

* harbors resentment toward others ,

* prone to pathological jealously ,

* argumentative and hostile .

the anxious cluster |

person(s) w / these disorders appear :

anxious ,

fearful ,

apprehensive ,

distressed .

includes the following personality disorders :

avoidant ,

dependent ,

obsessive - compulsive .

avoidant personality disorder |

characteristics ^ ~

feelings of inadequacy ,

sensitivity to criticism ,

restriction of activities to avoid embarrassments ,

low self - esteem .

dependent personality disorder |

characteristics ^ ~

excessive need to be taken care of ,

submissive ,

seeks reassurance from others ,

rarely takes initiative and rarely disagrees w / others ,

does not work week independently ,

may tolerate abuse from others to obtain support .

obsessive - compulsive personality disorder |

characteristics ^ ~

preoccupied w / order ,

strives for perfection ,

devoted to work and seeks little time for leisure or friendships ,

frequently miserly or stingy ,

rigid , inflexible , and stubborn .

dimensional model of personality disorders |

~ distinctions between normal personality traits and disorders are in terms of :

extremity ,

rigidity ,

maladaptiveness .

summary and evaluation |

~ all of the personality disorders refer to symptoms that cause problems w / relationships or with work or both .

~ personality disorders are enduring patterns of experience and behavior that differ greatly from the norms and expectations of a person's culture .

~ disorder shows up in abnormalities in how a person thinks , feels , gets along with others , and the person's ability to control his / her own actions .

pattern is displayed across situations , leading to the distress , for either themselves or others , in key areas of life such as love and work ,

disorder typically has a long history in a person's life .