Prelim essays (international and internal resistance to apartheid)

What 6 factors led to the development of total strategy by PW Botha?

• Trade unions were legalised in 1979 through the recommendation of the Wiehahn commission which lead to a resurgence in opposition from the trade unions themselves.
• Creation of the UDF in 1983 organised resistance.
• Calls from ANC in exile to make townships ungovernable.
• Terrorist attacks made possible by MK in frontline states
• Increased international criticism of apartheid • International embargos

What 10 security policies did PW Botha use to combat resistance?

• 1972 national service was 1 year, in 1977 720 day additional service during states of emergency.
• 1981 SADF numbers rose to 250 000 active with 250 000 in reserve.
• 200 000 children sent on military camps to indoctrinate future generations
• Creation of arms industry
• Military spending increased from R700 Million to R3 Billion in 1981
• Established the state security council
• Bureau of State Security (BOSS) launches covert operations into frontline states to assassinate resistance leaders and destroy MK bases
• Supported RENAMO and UNITA guerrilla groups in overthrowing African led governments
• State of emergency from 1985
• Troops sent into townships

When was the state security council made and what was it?

• 1982
• Army general and police chiefs – increased influence in Botha cabinet and decisions being made.
• Supported by a system of local joint-management centres run by local police chiefs – increased militarisation of South African State

What did PW Botha's total strategy encompass (4 things)?

• A broad action to combat resistance by any means possible:
• Militarily
• Economically
• Psychologically
• Politically

What led to the creation of a local arms industry in South Africa?

• Arms embargo forces apartheid government to set up own arms manufacturing sector – often built with parts supplied by countries breaking the arms embargo

What 2 psychological tactics did PW Botha use to combat resistance?

• Launched a propaganda campaign against neighbouring countries
• Illegal executions were common

What political policies did PW Botha use to combat resistance?

• Influence optics of South Africa through Ministry of information infiltrating overseas press
• It can be argued that the Black Local Authorities act, legalisation of black trade unions and the Tricameral Parliament were all forms of political window-dressing
• Censorship

What was the international economic reaction to total strategy?

• Botha's actions lead to increased international condemnations – forms the basis for disinvestment and sanctions in the mid-1980s

How did internal resistance oppose the militarisation of total strategy?

• Creation of ECC in 1983 • White draftees to lobby apartheid government to rescind measures and leads protest of anti-conscription measures – supported by NUSAS – calls for 'Troops out of the townships' by UDF

What were real reforms which benefitted black people under Apartheid in the late 70s?

• Abolition of pass laws
• Funding for bantu education
• Legalising of black trade unions

What led to the formation of the UDF in 1983: Apartheid reforms?

• The apartheid government aimed to win the hearts and minds of Black South Africans
• Attempt to make Apartheid palatable internationally
• Real reforms which did not lead to the creation of the UDF
• Window dressing reforms
• Specific issues still core to Apartheid and total strategy which needed to be addressed

What led to the formation of the UDF in 1983: Specific issues still core to apartheid?

• Bantu education was still estimated at around a tenth of what was spent on white education
• No real political representation of black individuals (Tricameral parliament)
• No real power for Coloureds or Indians in the tricameral parliament

Who are the prominent founding members of the UDF?

• Reverend Allen Boesak
• Desmond Tutu
• Hellen Joseph
• Albertina Sisulu

What was UDF Membership by 1985?

• 3 Million

How exactly was the UDF set up?

• 1983 Mitchell's plain Cape Town by reverend Allen Boesak
• Support by ANC and based on the freedom charter • 400+ organisations

What types of organisations formed part of the UDF?

• Trade unions
• Civics
• Community organisations
• Sport groups
• Business groups

What was the boycott of the tricameral elections called?

• Million Signature Campaign

How did the UDF organise resistance (7 things)?

• Rent boycotts
• School protests
• Worker stay-aways
• Consumer boycotts
• Posters
• Songs
• Pamphlets

How did the government react to the UDF?

• Leaders faced detentions, banning orders and even arrests
• Harassment from authorities
• Banned in 1988

How did the arrests of UDF leaders work on those 2 occasions?

• 16 charged including Albertina Sisulu, acquitted (1985-1986) • Delmas trial, 19 accused, convicted but overturned (1985-1988)

What is the context behind the development of the political resistance climate that caused the internal justification of total strategy?

• Repression of protest in the 1960s and 1970s had dampened resistance
• Reinvigoration of protest after the 1976 Uprising, and increasing politicisation of the youth
• Botha elected in 1978 and under increasing internal and external pressure
• Total Strategy policy to respond to 'total onslaught', a combination of increased repression and token reform, with a focus on constitutional reform

What were the constitutional reforms PW Botha made in 1983 (4 things)?

• Created the position of State President, increasing Botha's control
• Cabinet became increasingly powerful, also under NP's control
• Black Local Authorities Act created Township Councils as a superficial token of power for people in the townships, but these were seen as sell-outs to the government and this created increased backlash
• Creation of the Tricameral Parliament as an attempt to draw in Coloured and Indian support

What was the black local authorities act and why were the local community councils hated?

• Permanency of Black people in South Africa recognised as fact, but Botha did not want to allow any representation in parliament
• Gave township residents the ability to elect Township Councillors, local government structures within the townships
• Councillors were in charge of township administration and their funds came from the rents and levies of the township residents
• BLAs remained under the Bantu Administration Board of the government, all white officials appointed by government
• All these reforms were superficial and left the basis of apartheid firmly in place, and further entrenched the power of the National Party

How did South Africans protest against Botha's constitutional reforms in the 1980s: Tricameral parliament?

• Creation of the United Democratic Front and the National Forum, both umbrella bodies with affiliates which allowed for more fluid structure and more difficult for the government to repress
• UDF boycott of the Tricameral elections was very successful, only 20% of eligible voters participated in the elections, which was a clear indication that the new constitution was not accepted by Coloured and Indian voters

How did South Africans protest against Botha's constitutional reforms in the 1980s: Why banning the UDF did not matter in 1988?

• When the UDF was finally banned, the affiliates reorganised into the Mass Democratic Movement and began the 1989 Defiance Campaign

What impact did internal resistance have on the apartheid state: Resident's organisation in townships?

• PEBCO, SCA, Craddock Residents' Association around since the 1970s
• Increased activity in the 80s

What impact did internal resistance have on the apartheid state: Forms of organised protest?

• Organised and enforced mass action such as stayaways and boycotts, acted as pressure groups for service delivery
• Headed street committees to organise protest; people's courts to control and enforce protest
• Worked with other organisations, trade unions, UDF, NF, student and youth organisations

What was the 1984 township uprising?

• Started in 1984 as a series of rent boycotts and school boycotts
• Sharpeville, Sebokeng and Boipatong

What impact did internal resistance have on the apartheid state: 1984 Township uprising?

• Large military build ups into the townships which forced the uprising to die down by 1986
• Townships became ungovernable, leaving the apartheid government weakened and on the back foot
• Strengthened ANC, UDF and general anti-apartheid energy

What impact did internal resistance have on the apartheid state: Protest of rolling mass action?

• Protests and resistance became more unified
• Government lost control of entire areas of the country for months at a time
• Constant resistance weakened the apartheid state
• Economic pressure prevented state from increasing repression
• 1989 stalemate
• Increasing calls for reform by business leaders, Afrikaner intellectuals and more reformist elements of NP
• NP forced into negotiations

What was the punishment for refusing service?

• 6 year jail sentence

What vehicles did the SADF commandeer in the townships?

• Hippos
• Armoured vehicles patrolling the townships

What are the ironic elements of Botha's repression?

• ANC and MK improved in strength
• Increased international support for resistance
• Increased boycotts and sanctions
• Conscription led to ECC

What events led to the creation of the anti-apartheid movements?

• 1960s Sharpeville massacre
• 1976 Soweto uprising
• Criticism of NP in the UN

Additional economic boycotts from international community?

• Dunnes Stores fruit boycott (Ireland)
• Irish boycotts of SA coal and fuel

Additional disinvestment from international community?

• 1985 Chase Manhattan denied roll-over of South African loans
• 1985 Barclay's bank withdrew from SA (UK)

Additional sanctions from the international community?

• 1986 World conference on sanctions included UN, OAU, Non-aligned movement
• 1987 Nordic nations total embargo on trade with SA

Impact of economic sanctions on South Africa?

• Drop in exchange rate and massive inflation
• Economic recession
• High unemployment
• Business leaders meeting with ANC representatives
• Strengthened resolve of local trade unions
• Isolation of South Africa

Context of the "Critically assess the success of internal resistance in effectively challenging Botha's reforms between 1979 and 1989" essay?

• 1973 workers strikes and 1976 uprising had reinvigorated protest against apartheid
• Increasing attacks by MK, growth of the trade union movement despite legal restrictions, and growth of grassroots organisations put pressure on the Apartheid government
• Botha was Prime Minister from 1978 and then President from 1984 to 1989
• Botha realised that he needed to make changes to the system but was totally unwilling to grant more political or economic power to the black majority, so his reforms were largely cosmetic

How would you divide the topics of the "Critically assess the success of internal resistance" essay?

• Trade unions and labour movement growth resisting Botha's legalisation of Black Trade Unions
• Creation of new organisations to resist the Tricameral parliament
• Creation of Civics to defy the Black Local Authorities Act (may be discussed as part of the Township Uprising or vice versa)

How did South Africans protest against Botha's constitutional reforms in the 1980s: Black local authorities act?

• UDF led boycotts against the BLAs
• BLA community leaders were viewed as apartheid collaborators and often necklaced by township peoples' courts

How did trade unions specifically successfully oppose apartheid?

• 1984 and 1987 Mineworkers strikes
• 1988 General strike, 1 million workers, COSATU
• Involvement in 1989 defiance campaign
• Trade unions increased pressure on Botha and the NP

In the "Critically assess the success of internal resistance" essay, what should you mention regarding trade unions?

• Creation of FOSATU and later others such as CUSA, AZACTU, COSATU
• Successful in organising politically and improving workers' rights, trade unions brought the masses into the struggle against apartheid and renewed the vigour of mass protest
• Hindered by debates about government registration
• Limited by amendment law of 1981 which gave government oversight over unregistered trade unions
• Hindered by debates on whether to deal only with worker issues (workerist) or also to tackle the greater political issues (populist)

In the "Critically assess the success of internal resistance" essay, how did the township uprising challenge reforms?

• Sustained uprising organised by the UDF and civics led to rent, school and bus boycotts, and violence against collaborators
• Strikes and stay aways
• November 1984 saw the largest student and worker stay away since the 1960s
• 1985 call by ANC to make the townships ungovernable
• Only quelled with difficulty by 1986, and simmering uprisings remained; the success of this resistance was limited and weakened by divisions between groups in the townships

In the "How successful were anti-government organisations" essay, what are the core facts?

• Trade union movement • UDF and MDM • Civics and township uprising • Black Sash, ECC and churches

What does MK stand for?

• uMkhonto weSizwe

What was the perceived total onslaught of PW Botha's regime?

• Played on the fear of the disease from the east (communism) in order to win support from the Western governments
• To justify the repression of black people in order to protect the position of the white government
• To brainwash the white population in order for them to condone the harsh treatment of political activists, including white ones • To justify South Africa's role in destabilizing neighbouring countries by supporting anti-government rebel groups

In the "How successful were anti-government organisations" essay, what are the core details regarding the trade union movement?

• FOSATU, at first far more workerist
• COSATU formed in 1985, aligned with ANC and UDF, representing 500 000 workers
• Living wage campaign
• 1988 general strike
• 1987 Mineworkers strike

In the "How successful were anti-government organisations" essay, what details are key to the UDF?

• Formed to resist the tricameral parliament
• Umbrella organisation with broad membership allowed affiliates to retain their own ideas, enhancing its appeal
• 600 affiliates at its peak made the UDF the most powerful of the internal resistance organisations of SA
• How the tricameral parliament failed • The other impacts of the UDF

In the "How successful were anti-government organisations" essay, what details are key to the MDM?

• The UDF was banned in 1988 and its affiliates created the MDM
• The MDM continued the struggle
• Evidence of their ability to challenge and oppose the Apartheid government successfully

In the "How successful were anti-government organisations" essay, what are the important details about civics?

• Local organisations in townships that acted as pressure groups and points of organisation
• Civics opposed the BLAs
• Civics organised rent boycotts and violence and intimidation of councillors, leading many to resign or flee; civics essentially took over liberated zones in the townships as alternative institutions to government
• Civics remained largely in charge and oppositional mass action continued in the townships throughout the 1980s

What did the Black Sash do and what was their history?

• The Black Sash set up legal advice centres, protested, and held vigils
• Formed in 1955
• A small group of middle-class predominantly English-speaking women formed the Women's Defence of the Constitution League
• Initially formed to protest against the Separate Representation of Voters bill
• Became more involved in issues affecting rural communities through projects such as the Transvaal Action Committee and the National Land Committee (1985)

What did the ECC do?

• The ECC protested against conscription through alternative national service, vigils, hunger strikes, poster campaigns, and some marches

What did churches do during the late 1980s?

• Churches became the only legal voice of opposition, supporting the ECC, calling on foreign companies to apply pressure, and signing the Kairos Document

What was the Kairos Document?

• The Kairos Document was a theological statement published in September 1985 by a group of South African theologians, mostly Black and based in townships, in direct response to the escalating violence and state of emergency of that year
• It critiqued three theological and political stances toward apartheid: State Theology, Church Theology, and Prophetic Theology
• State Theology was the theology used by the apartheid government itself and its supporting churches
• Church Theology was the position of many mainstream, well-meaning churches that called for reconciliation, non-violence, and gradual reform, but avoided taking a clear structural stance against apartheid itself
• Prophetic Theology was the alternative the document itself advocated, that the church had a moral duty to actively side with the oppressed

What were the economic challenges of the early 70s?

• 1973 world oil crisis • Shortage of education due to Bantu education
• Waves of strikes, 60 000 in Durban and East Rand

How was the ANC in exile led?

• By Oliver Tambo in Lusaka, Zambia

What were the 3 chambers of the tricameral parliament, what races did they represent, how many seats did each house have, and what portion of the population did they represent?

• House of Assembly represented white candidates, had 178 seats, and represented 4.5 million citizens
• House of Delegates represented Indian candidates, had 45 seats, and represented 0.8 million citizens
• House of Representatives represented Coloured candidates, had 85 seats, and represented 2.6 million citizens
• There was no black representation, despite 21 million citizens
• Decisions of 'own affairs' were made within the individual houses, but 'general affairs' by a joint sitting, and the President decided what affairs were own or general

What economic policies did PW Botha use to combat resistance?

• It was clear that the Bantustan policy was not working, as permanent labour and not temporary labour was needed for manufacturing industries, requiring a stable working force
• In the 1980s, the manufacturing sector stopped growing, partly due to a lack of stable labour

What are civics?

• Pressure groups to persuade authorities to improve facilities and mobilize people into action improving their own lives
• Partook in boycotts and targeted black councillors through necklacing
• Introduced 'people's power' through township courts and overthrew pre-existing authorities
• Tackled rent, municipal services, public transport and poor recreational and child-care facilities
• Civics aimed to improve the quality of life of township residents and played a major role in the resistance of the 80s
• Had frequent, violent confrontations with the security forces • Originated as parent-student committees, women's organisations, youth groups or residents' associations
• Concentrated on specific issues such as bus fares and township rents, and became part of the wider spread of resistance
• Civics joined rent boycotts, consumer boycotts, worker stay aways, and boycotts of local elections, which led to violent confrontations with the police

What was the SACC?

• Voiced support for conscientious objections to service in the SADF
• Called on companies to refuse to apply job reservation
• In 1985 signed the Kairos Document, calling on Christians to support the liberation struggle by non-violent means such as civil disobedience campaigns, consumer boycotts and strikes
• Jewish and Muslim organisations openly supported the liberation struggle
• After the banning of the UDF and other political groups in 1987 and 1988, the churches were the only legal voice of opposition
• In 1989 the SACC supported non-violent action to end Apartheid, and the Dutch Reformed Church openly condemned apartheid

What was the NECC?

• Formed in 1985
• Promoted "Education for liberation"
• Called for 'people's education'
• Developed alternative teaching materials

What was the MDM?

• In 1989 the ANC called for a 'Year of Mass Action'
• Freedom marches drew 40 000 people in central Cape Town
• The ANC flag was openly displayed
• Deliberately broke segregation laws

What was the living wage campaign?

• A coordinated push demanding wages that could actually sustain a decent standard of living, rather than the minimum employers could get away with paying, moving beyond piecemeal workplace-by-workplace bargaining toward a unified national demand across industries
• It also aimed to eliminate wage gaps between senior management and workers, men and women, and skilled and unskilled workers, a gap that closely tracked race, given Black workers dominated the unskilled and low-wage categories

Why were pass laws abolished?

• By the 1980s, pass law enforcement had produced over 17 million arrests cumulatively, with a daily average prison population of nearly 100 000, one of the highest incarceration rates in the world, mostly for pass offenses, which was administratively and financially unsustainable
• PW Botha's government was trying selective reforms

What was the Freedom Charter exactly?

• Adopted on 26 June 1955
• Called for a non-racial democracy with universal suffrage
• Called for equal rights for all national groups
• Called for redistribution of land
• Called for nationalization of mines, banks, and major industry
• Called for equal pay, housing, education, and social security for all

What were the aims of the trade union movement?

• Improve working conditions
• Organize boycotts and stay-aways
• Stop scab labour
• Urge the community to boycott

How did the power of trade unions grow?

• Growth began in 1973 and strikes continued through the 1970s
• First concerned with workplace issues, then worked with community organisations to plan boycotts, stay-aways and other resistance
• Boycotted companies with poor labour practices and stopped scab work when going on strike
• The economy was dependent on black labourers, so as demand for labour increased, workers wanted trade unions
• Business leaders needed communication with workers
• The Wiehahn commission recommended legalising black trade unions in 1979
• FOSATU, COSATU's forerunner, was formed in 1979
• Trade unions were becoming a powerful political force