PSYCHOLOGY Unit 1: The Scientific Approach to Research Pyschology

Unit 1 Quiz and Test

cultural norms

Cultural and social groups tend to believe their ways re “normal,” other are “abnormal”

confirmation bias

look for evidence supporting already formed beliefs

hindsight bias

believe they knew something would occur before it did

overconfidence

be overconfident their beliefs are correct

independent variables

the variable the experimenter changes or controls and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable

confounding variables

unmeasured third variable that influences, or “confounds,” the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable by suggesting the presence of a spurious correlation

dependent variables

the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment

random assignment

avoids deliberate grouping of like variables to ensure that all variables have an equal chance to be in different groups

case study

detailed and in-depth study of one individual or unit

• Advantages: detailed information

• Disadvantage: cannot generalize to a larger population

correlation

the degree to which two factors vary together and therefore how well one predicts the other

positive correlation

Two factors vary systematically in the same direction, increasing or decreasing in size together

negative correlation

Two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, increasing or decreasing in size

meta-analysis

draws conclusions from multiple studies examining same or similar topic

naturalistic observation

collection of data without manipulation of the environment

• Advantage: study the behavior in natural settings-more “real”

• Disadvantages: researcher cannot control the variables

hypothesis

offers a testable prediction that will either be validated or rejected by research

falsifiable (pertaining to hypotheses)

must be able to be disproven by observation or experiment

operational definitions

how variables will be measured in numerical form

central tendency

Single number that presents some information about the “center” of a frequency distribution (mean, median, mode)

variation

the differences and changes in behavior, thoughts, emotions, and other attributes among individuals or groups

percentile rank

percentage of scores in a distribution that fall above or below a certain score

mean

sum Of a set of scores in a distribution divided by the number of scores (most representative measure of central tendency)

median

the score that divides a frequency distribution in half (same number of scores lie on each side of median)

mode

most frequently occurring score in a distribution

range

measure of variability (highest score in a distribution minus lowest score; information on extremes)

normal curve

symmetrical bell-curve in which the mean, median, and mode are exactly in the middle and the same

positive skew

an asymmetrical distribution in which more scores occur on the left side of the distribution graph (more scores are low, mean is higher than mode)

negative skew

More scores occur on the right side of the distribution graph (more scores are high; mean is less than mode)

bimodal distribution

distribution in which scores fall in such a way where there are two frequently occurring peaks

standard deviation

Measure of variability that helps determine how much the data differs from each other (each SD represents 68% of participants fall plus or minus that number)

regression toward the mean

tendency for very high or very low scores to become more moderate when retested over time

sample

subset of individuals from a larger population to study and draw inferences about the entire population

population

total group of individuals that share specific characteristics relevant to a study

representative sample

samples in which subgroups are represented proportionally (age, gender, race, ability) to ensure similarity

random sampling

everyone in population being studied has an equal chance of being picked as a participant

~helps ensure a representative sample (random number generator, pick names out of a hat)

convenience sampling

selected for inclusion due to easy access

• Advantages: saves money, time, and resources

• Disadvantages: may not be typical of general population — findings may not apply to other groups

generalizability

extent to which research findings can be applied to different people, situations, and contexts beyond the original study

experimental group

group exposed to independent variable

control group

key group that is NOT exposed to the independent variable

placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone

placebo effect

power of expectations that influence thought processes and behaviors

single-blind study

if the patient OR the researcher knows which group certain variables are in but the other is ignorant of the fact (singular person knows)

double-blind study

neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in which group (eliminates bias)

experimenter bias

unintentional influence of experimenter’s expectations, beliefs, or preconceived notions on the outcome of a study

sampling bias

systematic error that occurs when the collected sample does not accurately represent the entire population being studied

social desirability bias

when survey respondents provide answers according to society’s expectations, rather than their own beliefs or experiences

qualitative research/measures

produced a result that is described in words

• Qualitative Interview: uses a conversational approach to gather detailed information about people’s experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions

structured interviews

planned, standardized way of interviewing where the same questions are asked to all participants in the same order, and the responses are rated using a standardized system

quantitative research/measures

produce a result that is described with numbers

• Structured Interview: planned, standardized way of interviewing where the same questions are asked to all the participants in the same order, and the responses are rated using a standardize system

Likert scales

strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree

peer review

research psychologists with similar backgrounds evaluate the study to point out flaws, confounding variables, or varying perspectives of conclusion

replication

allows exact same study with exact methods/operational definitions to be performed multiple times and then combine data

scatterplot

graph that shows any correlation between the independent and dependent variables by plotting points and forming a trend line

correlation coefficient is the

Numerical indication of magnitude and direction of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables

effect sizes

degree to which the data is

statistical significance

differences may be caused by chance fluctuations or a study’s variables

~probability smaller that 0.05 means data is NOT due to CHANCE

directionality problem (in correlation)

when the cause and effect can be switched

ex: sleeping and happiness are correlated, so does that mean happiness causes more sleep

third variable problem (correlation)

when a third variable is the true cause of the correlation between two unrelated variables

ex: eating ice cream and murder are positively correlated

institutional review

studies must be approved by IRB (humans) or IACUC (animals) and follow APA guidelines

informed consent

participation must be voluntary and informed

informed assent

participation must be voluntary and informed

protections from harm (maleficence)

no harm should be inflicted on participants (no pain, trauma, anxiety, or damage)

confidentiality

reasonable precautions must be taken to protect the personal info of participants

deception

only can be used absolutely necessary to evaluate the theory properly

~deceived participants must be debriefed (explanation regarding purpose) as quickly as possible

debriefing

Post-study process where researchers provide participants a fill explanation of research (deception *if used) and address any potential negative effects