Chapter 3 Qualitative research methods-Karteikarten | Quizlet

What approaches to scientific phenomena are you familiar with ? - 3 Additions -

*Positivism as the dominant approach

*Subjectivism (Interpretive/relativist)

*Social Constructivism (Interpretive/relativist)

Characterise positivism

- Identification of cause-effect relationships

- Objective: Relationships are always valid and are neither limited in time nor space nor dependent on the researcher

Which two research approaches are you familiar with ? Name the main goals and methods ! -9 points graph-

Contrast the positivist approache to research

- Research Goal Empirical acquisition of " positive " knowledge, i.e. of actual, sensually perceptible and usually quantitatively testable findings. (Prediction)

- Nature of reality: objective & unambiguous

- Findings: time & context independent

- Causality: Causes existence

- Research Relationship: Demarcation between the researcher and the research subject

Contrast the interpretive approache to research

- Research Goal: Empirically obtaining " interpretive " findings , i.e. , qualitative findings that are often subject to subjective interpretations. (Understanding)

- Nature of reality: subjective & socially constructed

- Findings: time & context dependent

- Causality: Multiple simultaneous influences

- Research Relationship: The researching person is interactively & cooperatively part of the research subject

Define the term Qualitative Research

Systematic collection and analysis of non-standardized data. It usually involves the use of a small, non-representative sample with the goal of gaining in-depth insights about the research subject

Name characteristics of qualitative research

- Small case numbers

- Openness

- Theory building

- Subjectivity

- Interaction

- Flexibility

- Communication

- Interpretation

- Reflexivity

Characterise qualitative research (definition, destination, procedure, data collection, evaluation, size of the nb of cases)

- Definition: In-depth analysis & understanding of a phenomenon

- Destination: Development of new theories Predominantly " inductive

- Procedure: Predominantly „inductive"

- Data collection: Non-standardized data collection

- Evaluation: Interpretative evaluation

- Size of the number of cases: Small case numbers in order to be able to respond more strongly to individual cases

Characterise quantitative research (definition, destination, procedure, data collection, evaluation, size of the nb of cases)

- Definition: Systematic capture of a precise section of reality

- Destination: Testing of existing theories / hypotheses

- Procedure: Predominantly "deductive"

- Data collection: Standardized data collection

- Evaluation: Statistical evaluation

- Size of the number of cases: Large number of cases to be able to explain causal relationships

How is the design of qualitative studies constructed ?

1. Definition of the question

2. Selection of the research method

3. Sample selection and recruitment of participants

4. Implementation and transcription of data collection

5. Data coding

6. Evaluation and interpretation of the qualitative codes

7. Theory building & compilation of results

What qualitative data collection methods do you know ?

• Interviews

• Observations

• Document analysis

• Focus groups

• Case studies

• Ethnography

Define the term Qualitative Interview

"Method of empirical social research that captures essential attitudes and opinions of the interviewee about the research subject through the use of a non-directive qualitative, face-to-face interview, also called in-depth interview"

Name practical hints for the design of qualitative interviews

- Openness & transparency: you never know for sure beforehand who is a good whistleblower

- Learning environment: expression of cultural ignorance; make it clear that you want to learn something

- Reflexivity: consciously dealing with one's influence as a researching person on the findings

- Location: Digital or in person; if possible, the choice can be left to the informant

- Time: Clarification of the rough time requirement before the start of the interview (e.g. approx. 1h for an in-depth interview)

- Recording: audio recorder/video recorder/notes (obtain informant's consent in advance)

- Observation & Context: Possible addition of non-participant observers; additional recording of room design, body language, background music, etc.

What types of qualitative interviews do you know ?

- Unstructured interviews

- Semi structured interviews

- Structured interviews

Name characteristics of unstructured interviews

- No interview guide

- Informant provides structure

- Broad range of topics

- Focus on narratives

- Very explorative

- Very time consuming

- Difficult to analyze

Name characteristics of semi-structured interviews

- Flexible interview guide

- Open, dynamic questions

- Researcher and informant shape structure together

- Coherent flow of topics

- Time-consuming

- Complex to analyze

List practice tips for semi-structured interviewing

*Question: From the general to the specific

*Question types: Focus on " how" and "why" questions; avoid suggestive questions and "yes/no" questions

*Question flow: Focus and change between topics depending on discussion flow

*Active listening & empathy :

- Display active listening without interruption, e.g., repeating content; brief statements such as "ah," "yes," "right"; non-verbal expression such as humming, nodding, raising eyebrows, silence, etc.

- Check if question was understood correctly, e.g. by summaries; questions for clarification like "In which sense ... ?" reiteration; reformulation of the question etc.

Name characteristics of structured interviews

- Detailed, inflexible interview guide

- Researcher provides structure

- Special topic focus

- Fast & efficient

- Often superficial data

- Simple to analyze

Define the focus group

Moderated discussion of several participants, which is based on a semi-structured guideline. The method is based on the principles of communication, openness, dynamic familiarity/strangeness, and reflexivity

Characterize focus groups

- To capture discussion, group dynamics, and language use

- Suitable for investigating topics in an exploratory manner

- Often between 6-12 people.

- The group comes together in a single location for a face-to-face meeting

- Often used in market research

- Most of the techniques for conducting one-on-one interviews also apply to focus groups

Compare the advantages of individual interviews

- best way to explore decisions and compare differences as well as similarities between members of the reference group.

- Recommended when the topic is very sensitive or personal

- Easier to handle

- Can be done via Skype/phone

Compare the disadvantages of individual interviews

- If the respondent is not very open-ages minded, you will not get the insights you are looking for

- Respondents might anticipate the phenomenon under study and thus be influenced in their own responses

Compare the advantages of focus groups

- Excellent approach, for exploratory topics

- Groups can be encouraged to brainstorm.

- Creative environment

- Focus group dynamics are ideal for assessing market acceptance or capturing challenges and issues, for example.

- Fast, simple and inexpensive

- Good for exploring shared values, views, terminologies, and group dynamics.

Compare the disadvantages of focus groups

- Complicated by group dynamics

- Lacks the depth of a one-on-one conversation

- More logistical effort

- Complex data analysis

- Dominant group members as opinion leaders

- Participants may feel uncomfortable expressing their true opinions in a group setting

- Peer pressure

- Can be difficult to manage

- Often difficult to transcribe

- Often fragmented and incomplete

What types of observations do you know ?

*Participant observation

*Non-Participant observation

Explain Participant Observation

- Direct participation of the researcher in the action of the research object

- Observations are subjectively influenced or distorted by the person doing the research

- Investigation of socio-cultural contexts

Explain Non-Participant observation

- No direct participation of the researcher

- Descriptive, objective observation

- Systematic analysis of practices, behaviors, decisions, etc.

Characterize the document analysis

- Goal: Analysis of data already available as a document (e.g. in archives)

- Set-up: evaluation of existing documents, e.g. journals, interview transcripts, photographs

- Application example: Organizational research

Characterize Qualitative Case Studies

- Goal : Detailed investigation of a research subject in a real-life setting. It should lead to a better general understanding based on an individual case

- Set-up : analysis of individual cases, such as a company, a brand, an event, using a combination of research methods (e.g. interviews, observations, archival documents)

- Application example : Market research

What is meant by ethnography ?

Systematic study of people and cultures. Data collection may involve examining the behavior of participants in a particular social situation and understanding their interpretation of that behavior

Notice :

- Used to test hypotheses, but, on the contrary, follows the principle of grounded theory

- No general statement can be made about the duration of data collection

Characterize the ethnography

- Objective : To explore (everyday) cultures by analyzing typical forms of interaction and life, practices and rituals

- Set-up : Researcher participates in the everyday life of the researched persons (especially through participant observation and supplementary interviews). The degree of participation can vary. The ethnographer should enter the field without bias, discard social conventions and be as neutral as possible towards the subject

- Application example : Consumer research

What does netnography mean ?

InterNET + EthNOGRAPHY

- „Virtual Ethnography" -> Ethnography over, in, and through the Internet.

- Application of ethnographic methods to online communities and cultures

- Online qualitative data as an indicator of cultures or communities

Define qualitative sampling

"Selection of a subset from the population to be studied using qualitative methods. These can be, among others, persons, groups, interactions, or events."

What is sampling ?

Structured selection of informants.

Census (big picture people) -> sample (zoom on one group of people)

What qualitative sampling methods do you know ?

- Theoretical sampling

- Selective sampling

- Purposive Sampling

Characterize the Theoretical Sampling

- Focuses on developing a theory from qualitative data

- The selection of individuals or study cases takes place in the process of data collection and analysis.

- The selection of further cases is terminated as soon as a "theoretical saturation" occurs. This is reached when further cases and analyses no longer provide any new insights.

- The scope, size, and characteristics of the sample cannot be determined at the outset.

Characterize the Selective Sampling

- Determines the relevant selection criteria depending on the research question

- Criteria may include, for example, gender, age, and education; these are defined independently of the material studied and prior to data collection.

- In addition, comparison dimensions important to the research question are usually identified (e.g., large vs. small companies; employees and managers).

- The aim is to cover the relevant phenomena and experiences in the field under study as broadly as possible

Characterize the Purposive Sampling

- Cases/individuals studied are selected purposively based on their relevance to the research question

- A sample should be constructed that is reasonably suitable because it contains certain characteristics that contribute to the development or deepening of the theory under study

- Examples of "purposive samples" are : Extreme cases, maximum variation, typical cases, politically important cases, or easily accessible cases.

What is important to keep in mind about qualitative sample size ?

- Size : No uniform opinion/specification in the literature: In practice, usually between 10 and 100 people, depending on the research question studied, method, and difficulty of accessing the sample.

- Comparison : Sample size generally significantly smaller than for quantitative methods

- Main criterion : achieving "theoretical saturation" through data collection ; in this respect, difficult to determine in advance how many people should be recruited for qualitative research

- Spectrum : Larger samples are needed when a broader range of topics is considered

- Conclusions : Data interpretation considering the considered sample

Give practical advice on how to access the sample

- Covert vs. overt research (does the person interviewed/observed know about the data collection).

- Digital vs. personal (face-to-face ) access to the sample

- Social barriers (e.g. age, gender, education, class)

- Structural barriers (e.g. access to top management

- Organizational barriers (e.g., geographic distance, time requirements).

- Note : Think about your role and influence as a researcher in the field in advance !

What is meant by the analysis of qualitative data ?

"Process of labeling and decomposing (or decontextualizing) raw data and then reconstituting it into categories, patterns, themes, concepts, and sentences."

How is the process of qualitative data analysis structured ?

1. Transcription

2. Coding

3. Theory building

What is meant by transcription?

"In qualitative social research, it refers to the writing down of spoken, and sometimes non-verbal, communication that has been recorded on video or audio media."

How is transcription implemented in practice?

- Complete transcription of (non-) verbal communication (e.g., "Yes, I think that's right.")

- Timestamps are helpful (e.g. set min. once per minute)

- Transcription is time-consuming (especially of spoken dialect)

- Transcription is not subject to grammar (i.e. this also applies to punctuation marks)

- Use of transcription characters creates clarity and structure , such as :

• [ ] for comments from the person transcribing [laughs]

• (X) for marking long pauses

• (...) in case of uncertainty/incomprehensibility of the exact wording

Define qualitative data coding

"Critical link" between data collection and data analysis, i.e. their explanation of meaning. The goal is to build a theory based on the qualitative data.

Define qualitative data coding ! Graph

Define coding

Process of assigning a label (word, phrase, or sequence of letters-called a "code") to a section of text to identify the presence of a theme or idea relevant to the research question.

Define Memos

Capturing of reflective thoughts/ideas about the collected data or assigned codes that serve as the basis for data interpretation/theory building

Name the steps of data encoding

1 ) Open coding

2 ) Axial Coding

3) Selective Coding

Explain Open Coding

Open approach to describing, naming or classifying the phenomenon under consideration by single words or a short sequence of words = „in vivo codes"

Explain Axial Coding

Axial coding is the process of interpreting existing codes and relating them to each other through horizontal comparison to derive theoretical concepts

Explain Selective Coding

After deriving the concepts, further data are selectively sampled and coded to identify the essential categories of concepts for theoretical summarization

What are the methods of qualitative data analysis ?

- Qualitative content analysis

- Grounded Theory

Define qualitative content analysis according to Mayring

Structured procedure for the rule-guided evaluation of qualitative data (e.g. transcripts of interviews, newspaper articles, images or video recordings).

What are the central basic characteristics according to Mayring?

(a) Summary

(b) Explication

(c) Structuring

Define Grounded Theory

"Qualitative research method that uses a series of systematic process steps to inductively derive a theory about a phenomenon based on qualitative data."

Explain grounded theory in a little more detail

- Start with the data itself. Focus on generating theoretical ideas (or hypotheses) from the data.

- The theory is empirically based.

- This is a very radical approach.

- Helpful in developing an understanding of phenomena that cannot be explained by existing theories.

Alternative :

Go into the field with an open mind, but not an empty mind.

Let your research question guide you.

BUT : Don't force fit your data , don't reinvent the wheel.

Name and explain the rules of thumb of Grounded Theory

- Inductive procedure

- Comparative analysis

- Theoretical coding

Explain Inductive procedure

Theory development based on qualitative data (theoretical sampling).

Explain Comparative Analysis

Iterative alternation of data collection, analysis and evaluation.

Explain Theoretical Coding

Converting data into theoretical concepts through systemic coding.

Graphically represent the research process of Grounded Theory ! - Graphic -

Research Question -> [Theoretical Sampling -> Data Collection] ; [Theoretical Sampling <- Theoretical Saturation] => Data Coding -> permanent comparison -> Grounded theory

In which areas is qualitative research applied ?

- Opinion research

- Market research

- Organizational

- Research Idea generation & problem validation

What statements can be made about the relationship between sample and population ?

• The more representative the sample is of the population, the more accurately statements can be made about the population

• The larger the sample, the more precise the statements about the population

→ But : Even a carefully drawn sample can never perfectly represent the population

What can be said about generalizability in qualitative research ?

- Usually not possible and is not the goal of qualitative research

- The empirical results can lead to theory building, which then has a broader impact

- Case-to-case transfer: results from one case can be transferred to another similar case. (-> However, what is "similar" is highly subjective

List criticisms of qualitative research

- Too subjective (researcher decides what to focus on)

- Difficult to replicate (unstructured format)

- Generalizability problematic/not possible (samples that are not "representative" for all cases)

- Frequent: lack of transparency (often unclear what the researcher actually did)

Summarize the most important points from lecture 3

- A basic distinction is made between positivist and interpretive approaches, with positivist approaches aiming at prediction and interpretive approaches aiming at understanding

- There are different types of qualitative data collection such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, case studies, etc..

- In qualitative sampling, a distinction is made between Theoretical Sampling, Selective Sampling, and Purposive Sampling

- The qualitative content analysis according to Mayring as well as the Grounded Theory represent possible procedures of the qualitative data analysis