Psych 2: levels of processing

Information processing model: simplest model of cognition

Detect stimulus → store and transform stimulus→ produce response

Information processing model: Atkinson-Shiffrin model

External events→ sensory memory→ working/short-term memory→ long term memory storage

-automatic processing: external events→long term memory storage

-effortful processing: whole thing

2 types of encoding and processing: automatic processing

(Bottom up)

-occurs without us being aware of it

-used to form implicit memories [memories we aren’t fully aware of (non-declarative)]

-doesn’t involve working memory

-performing tasks/making decisions without conscious effort or attention

-ex) tieing shoe, practicing sports

2 types of encoding and processing: effortful processing

(Top down)

-intentionally learning information

-ex) studying, rehearsing, thinking about it and then storing info. into long term memory

-used for declarative memories (facts and experiences that we are aware of knowing and can recall)

Automatic processing examples

-procedural memory: perform tasks without thinking (ex. playing piano)

-conditioned associations: behaviorism

-spatial info.: don’t mean to learn it (ex. The color and shape of my house)

-temporal info.: retracing a sequence of events

-frequency: thinking, “I just noticed that this is my 3rd cookie today”

Effortful processing examples

1) perceive stimuli: what we perceive enters sensory memory, most sensory memories vanish (focus on specific aspects)

2)pay attention to certain stimuli: what we focus on

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

1)stimuli enter

2) immediate, very brief recording of sensory info. before it’s processed into short/long term memory

-we sense stimuli and it enters our sensory memory. We have to maintain our attention to memorize it

Sensory memory to short term memory

-most sensory memories vanish

-exception: those details we selectively pay attention to are encoded into working/short term memory

-ex.) Remembering phone # to type it in to get pizza and then forget it because we don’t need it anymore

Short-term memory

-function: to work with info., serves as “temporary storage", process info

-rehearsing very important info. Will move memory from short to long term

-capacity: duration-seconds to a couple of minutes

-ex) helps solve word problems

Miller

-humans can only store 7 (plus or minus 2) bits of info. in short term memory

-7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words

Effortful processing strategies

-how we encode info. into memory to prevent decay and make retrieval easier

-practice: rehearsal, distributed

-chunking/grouping: 7 letters/5 words

-mnemonic devices: images, peg-words

-semantic processing

-making info. relevant to you

Distributed practice

-leads to increase in amount of info. and increase in the understanding of info.

-led to better recall and higher level of comprehension compared to mass practice

Why is distribution practice better: encoding variability

Info. Learned in a new context each time and more retrieval paths to the same memory

Why is distribution practice better: attention

Massed practice leads to habitation and after some sort of interval, even highly studied info. begins to seem novel again and is more likely to attract attention

-less boring to study in short bursts

Why is distribution practice better: consolidation

-strengthening of synaptic connections

-requires resources

-not sure when/why this occurs but it does appear to occur over time

Why is distribution practice better: sleep

-neuronal cells activated during learning are reactivated during sleep (in rats)

-disruptions to REM sleep lead to a decrease in learning

Retrieval as practice

(Carrier and Pashler)

-study trial 1) word pairs presented and subjects are asked to read silently (intuitive words and English translation)

-study trial 2) say aloud English translation (2 groups) 1: pure study trial- intuitive and English words presented at same time)

2: retrieval practice- intuitive presented 1st, English presented 5 secs later (improves memory 8-15%)

Expanding rehearsal

(Landauer and Bjork)

-practice involves repeated testing of items

-lag between repetitions increases gradually

-combines advantages of both: distributed and retrieval practice

-leads to better memory than massed or evenly distributed practice

Levels of processing

(Craik and Lockhart)

-memory is not made up of discrete stores; capacity, duration, amount of rehearsal alone don’t explain memory performance

-encoding info. into memory is a dynamic process; what we remember is a function of how we process info

Essence of levels

-emphasis of processes, not stores

-memory is an outgrowth of perception

-processing can vary along a continuum from “shallow" to “deep"

-”shallow"- physical structure of objects

-”deep"- semantic meaning associated with objects

-memory is a by product of processing (no stores) Deeper processing→ better memory

Semantic processing

More likely to retain info. if we focus on the semantics (meaning)

Deep semantic precessing

Focusing on meaning

Shallow semantic processing

Memorizing appearance or word sounds

Evidence for levels of processing

(Craik and Tuiving)

Most shallow to most deep

-group 1) structure of the word (ALL caps, size?, etc) (ex. TABLE)

-group 2) rhymes the word (ex. CAT, does it rhyme with mat?)

-group 3) understand the meaning/semantic (ex. DAFFODIL, is the word a type of plant?)

Incidental learning

Deep processing leads to learning, even in the absence of intention to learn

-learn things without trying

Intentional learning

Ensures deep processing will occur, guarentees learning

Generation effect

-have to study 1st to in order to generate a solution

-leads to better memory and active processing is better

-memory much better in the generate condition

-generation involves deep processing relative to simply reading (shallow)

-active processing better than passive

Levels of processing influenced by…

-nature of encoding task (focus on meaning vs structural features)

-meaningfulness of material (ex. Your own name/pics= very meaningful)

Expertise

(Chase and Simon)

-compare memory for configuration of pieces on a chess board in experts and nonexperts

-expertise allows info. to be processed more deeply due to meaning

-when the pieces on the board were arranged in a meaningful way (as they appear in a chess game): chess experts displayed far superior memory for these configurations relative to novices

-organized at random (violates game rules): memory was identical for novices and experts

Distinctiveness

-Distinctive items remembered better

-processed more deeply because they are easier to distinguish from everything else

-ex) lamp, table, chair, pineapple, couch

Organization

-organized info. is easier to recall

-subjects spontaneously organize info. presented to them even when random

-same words recalled together

-instructions to organize enhance recall

-a form of chunking: organizing info. into smaller units easier to encode and recall

-encoding of similarities between items

Deep elaborative processing

Distinctive memories of individual items

Mnemonic devices

-memory trick connecting info. to existing memory strengths

-tends to be either verbal/auditory (ex.acronyms, phrase, poetic devices) or pictorial/imagery

Levels of processing and organization

(Einstein and Hunt)

-study phase (3 groups):

1)item processing -rate pleasentness of word (emphasizes distinctiveness of item)

2)organization: categorize word (emphasizes similarity between items)

3)do both tasks (this group did the best)

-test phase: free recall, no particular order

-similarities: increases accessibility

-distinctiveness: increases discriminability

Transfer appropriate processing

-idea: depth of process not important

What is: compatibility between encoding and retrieval processes

-ex) if you want to learn how to pronounce words better, you should pay attention to the phonology of the word, not its meaning (surface structure, not meaning)

Transfer appropriate processing study

(Morris, Bransford, and Frank)

-study phase: yes/no judgements

(Stidied a list of words and took a fill in the blank test using the words to recall from the list)

Ex.) The ____had a silver engine; TRAIN-

____ rhymes with legal; EAGLE

-test phase: old/new jugements

1) old if occurred in study phase (ex. EAGLE)

2) old if rhymes with studied word (ex. REGEL)

-effectiveness of encoding depends on the manner in which memory is tested

Deeper encoding

-hifher potential memory performance, realization of potential depends on compatibility between encoding and retrieval

Encoding specificity

(Fisher and Craik)

-relationship between encoding and retrieval is: context dependent ( keep external factors the same when studying and testing) and state dependent (keep emotional and mental state the same)

Butler and Rovee-Collier

-encoding specificity with 3 month old infants

-study phase: learn to move a mobile by kicking it

-test phase: same crib and mobile=strong kicking; different crib or mobile=much less kicking

Levels of processing: comtributions

-emphasis on nature of encoding processes, not stores: active involvement necessary for good memory

-inteoduced a technique: identical learning with an orienting task for studying encoding process

-processes can be characterized in terms of: depth, elaboration, organization, distinctiveness, compatibility with retrieval processes (test type or test context)

Criticisms of levels

(Nelson)

-wrong=even maintenence rehearsal does improve memory

-circularity= there is no independent measure of depth in the framework

→deep encoding→ good memory (repeat)

Atkinson and Shriffrin model addresses the quality of practice: t or f

False

Drinking coffee when studying and not drinking coffee when taking the test: context or state dependent

State dependent

Studying while listening to music and taking the test in a quiet classroom: context or state dependent

Context

Studying for a test in a classroom and taking the test in the same classroom: context or state dependent

Context

Being sleepy while studying and being awake taking the test: context or state dependent

State

Research has shown that on average, people tend to perform better when they…

Spread out their studying

What type of processing is used for explicit memories?

Effortful processing

Defining a term using your own words and examples is a type of..

Elaboration