psychology chapter 12 social development

Infants Prepared to Learn

Infants are born equipped with cognitive building blocks that allow learning to “get off the ground.”

Children’s Learning

Children learn through looking, exploring, and explaining the world around them.

Cognitive Development Across Lifespan

Knowledge increases across life even as general cognitive processing declines.

Attachment

A strong emotional connection that persists across time and circumstances.

Secure Base

Attachment provides comfort & security that allows infants to explore.

Harlow’s Monkey Study

Monkeys preferred comfort from cloth mother over food from wire mother, showing attachment is more than physical needs.

Effects of Social Deprivation (Monkeys)

Monkeys raised without social peers develop social and behavioral issues.

Strange Situation

Assessment of attachment using separations and reunions with caregiver.

Secure Attachment

Infant is distressed when caregiver leaves and easily comforted on return.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Infant shows little distress and avoids caregiver upon return.

Insecure-Resistant Attachment

Infant is very distressed, seeks closeness but may act angry upon return.

Disorganized Attachment

Infant shows inconsistent or contradictory behaviors toward caregiver.

Caregiver Sensitivity

Responsive caregiving predicts secure attachment.

Maternal Anxiety

Linked with insecure attachment.

Caregiver Social Skills & Attitudes

Influence attachment patterns; part of caregiver–child feedback loops.

Goodness of Fit

Match between child’s temperament and environment.

Cultural Influence on Strange Situation

Some cultures find separations more normal or more stressful, influencing attachment behaviors.

Secure Attachment Outcomes

Better socioemotional function, peer relationships, and school adjustment.

Insecure Attachment Outcomes

Higher risk of depression and behavioral problems.

Early Social Categorization

Infants categorize people based on appearance or sound.

Preschool Stereotypes

Attitudes and stereotypes appear in preschool years.

Implicit Attitude Test (IAT)

Measures unconscious associations with social groups.

Implicit Stereotypes Stability

Implicit biases remain stable across the lifespan.

Explicit Stereotypes Decline

Children report fewer stereotypes as they learn social norms.

Gender Identity Age

Children identify as “boy” or “girl” by age 3.

Transgender Youth Identity

Same level of gender identification as cisgender peers.

Gender Stereotype Emergence

Appears in preschool.

Peak Gender Stereotype Rigidity

Around age 5.

Stereotype Flexibility with Age

Becomes more flexible after age 5.

Transgender Youth Stereotyping

More flexible gender categories, slightly less stereotyping.

Gender Psychological Salience

Gender is a highly important category for young children.

Science Explanations Bias

Caregivers give more science explanations to boys than girls.

Theory of Mind Definition

Ability to understand others’ mental states (beliefs, desires, goals).

Age of False Belief Understanding

Around age 4 (Sally-Anne task).

Authoritarian Parenting

ocus on punishment and bad traits; associated with shame.

Authoritative Parenting

Focus on intentions and context; associated with guilt and reflection.

Infant/Toddler Self-Concept

Parallel play; no social comparison.

Early–Middle Childhood Self-Concept

Stable friendships begin; social comparison increases.

Adolescent Self-Concept

Becomes more complex and context-dependent.

Context-Dependent Identity

Adolescents adjust their identity based on environment (friends, school, home).

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something because you enjoy it.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something to receive a reward.

Extrinsic Reward Effect

Extrinsic rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation.

Fixed Mindset

Belief that traits are unchangeable.

Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities develop through effort.

Trait Praise

Praising innate abilities; promotes fixed mindset.

Process Praise

Praising effort and strategies; promotes growth mindset.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Development progresses through age-related psychosocial challenges.

Skills from Psychosocial Stages

Each stage’s success prepares for the next stage.

Negative Emotional Bias (Younger Adults)

Focus more on negative information.

Positive Emotional Bias (Older Adults)

Focus more on positive stimuli.

Social Network Influence Across Life

Social relationships shape identity and self-concept over the lifespan.