Studying the Ancient Near East and Its Civilizations

Archaeological Evidence

Surviving material remains from ancient civilizations.

Textual Evidence

Written documents like clay tablets revealing daily life.

Clay Tablets

Primary writing medium in the Ancient Near East.

Papyrus

Less common writing material, mainly found in Egypt.

Inscriptions

Public statements in cuneiform or hieroglyphs.

Epigraphy

Study of ancient inscriptions and their meanings.

Stratigraphy

Layered excavation method for chronological understanding.

Chronology

Dating methods combining absolute and relative techniques.

Radiocarbon Dating

Absolute dating method using carbon isotopes.

Dendrochronology

Tree-ring dating for establishing chronological timelines.

Short Chronology

Model emphasizing brief historical timelines.

Long Chronology

Model suggesting extended historical timelines.

Survival Issues

Loss of materials due to time and destruction.

Access Problems

Geopolitical conflicts restricting archaeological site access.

Neolithic Societies

Settled communities emerging around 9000 BCE.

Irrigation Systems

Technologies enabling agriculture in arid regions.

City-States

Urban centers controlling surrounding territories.

Akkadian Empire

First empire in history, established by Sargon.

Sargon of Akkad

Founder of the Akkadian Empire, non-elite origins.

Centralization

Consolidation of power under a single authority.

Royal Ideology

Belief system connecting rulers to divine legitimacy.

Territorial Expansion

Akkadian conquests extending to distant regions.

Diplomacy and Influence

Using treaties and marriages to control local rulers.

Royal Ideology

Kings claimed divine titles and deification.

Naram-Sin

Akkadian king who claimed godly status.

Instability and Decline

Empire faced rebellions and local splintering.

Sumerian King List

Chronicles chaos of kingship legitimacy.

Enlil's Temple

Significant temple destroyed by Naram-Sin.

Third Dynasty of Ur

Period marked by bureaucratic governance (c. 2112-2004 BCE).

Ur III Rulers

Adopted title 'Kings of Sumer and Akkad'.

Bala System

Taxation system for provincial contributions.

Infrastructure Investment

High royal investment in public works.

Warfare and Diplomacy

Ur III engaged in conflicts and alliances.

Royal Marriage

Used to influence neighboring regions.

State Ideology

Kings deified and children became high priests.

Localism

Regional variations persisted despite centralization efforts.

Instability Factors

Bala system collapse and grain price spikes.

Ibbi-Sin

Last king of Ur III, captured.

Literature Flourishing

Sumerian literature thrived under Ur III rulers.

Epic of Gilgamesh

First written during Ur III period.

Old Babylonian Period

Era after Ur III collapse with short-lived states.

Amorites

Group claiming descent, including Hammurabi.

Hammurabi

Amorite king who established Babylonian dominance.

Infrastructure Investment

Hammurabi improved Babylon's infrastructure significantly.

Hammurabi's Code

Legal collection reflecting societal norms and ideals.

Dispute Resolution

Mechanisms present in society for resolving conflicts.

Kassites

Ruled Babylonia post-Hittite weakening, adopted local culture.

Assur-uballit I

Reasserted Assyrian independence from Mitanni.

Middle Assyrian Period

Time of conflict from 14th to 11th century BCE.

Neo-Assyria

Period of gradual power reassertion starting 11th century BCE.

Kalhu (Nimrud)

Capital of Neo-Assyria, reflecting expanded control.

Kingship in Assyria

Rulers acted as priests, ensuring divine prosperity.

Public Works

Major accomplishments alongside military victories in Assyria.

Administration in Assyria

Compact central domain with indirect rule over satellites.

Waxed Tablets

Replaced clay for everyday use in administration.

Elite Society

Elites held administrative roles, owning fortified estates.

Warfare Tactics

Assyria waged wars against Arameans, deported conquered populations.

Aramaic Language

Gradually replaced Babylonian-Assyrian language post-conquest.

Enforcement Methods

Included impalement, flaying, and beheading for control.

Relationship with Babylonia

Complex ties; Tiglath-Pileser III ruled both regions.

Conflict with Egypt

Assyria attacked Egypt, conquered under Ashurbanipal.

Collapse of Neo-Assyria

Civil wars led to Babylon's rebellion and Assyria's fall.

Neo-Babylonia

Chaldaean rule from 626-539 BCE, heavily Babylonized.

Nebuchadnezzar II

Most significant king of Neo-Babylonia.

Ishtar Gate

Famous public work symbolizing Babylon's grandeur.

Nabonidus

Non-royal king devoted to moon god Sin.

Cyrus the Great

Founded Persian Empire, defeated Medes and expanded territory.

Cyrus Cylinder

Text portraying Cyrus as a restorer of traditions.

Policies of Cyrus

Accused Nabonidus of neglect, praised by Jewish sources.

Persian Administration

Empire had five capitals due to vastness.

Pasargadae

Cyrus' capital showcasing hybrid artistic styles.

Nile River

Egypt's primary water source, crucial for agriculture.

Sedentarism

Transition to permanent settlements around 5000 BCE.

Narmer (Menes)

Unified Upper and Lower Egypt, establishing centralized rule.

Papyrus

Ancient writing material made from papyrus plant.

Ostraka

Writing on potsherds, used for record-keeping.

Ma'at

Cosmological principle of order, justice, and truth.

Old Kingdom

Period of pyramid construction and royal power.

Pyramids

Monumental tombs symbolizing kings' divine status.

Bureaucracy

Administrative system managing resources and governance.

Hieroglyphics

Egyptian writing system using symbols and sounds.

First Intermediate Period

Decentralization marked by regional power struggles.

Middle Kingdom

Period of reunification and bureaucratic restoration.

Mentuhotep II

Reunited Egypt, beginning the Eleventh Dynasty.

Senusret III

Reorganized bureaucracy, abolishing local rulers.

Sobekneferu

First known female pharaoh of Egypt.

Second Intermediate Period

Hyksos invasion led to foreign rule in Egypt.

Hyksos

Foreign rulers who gained power in the Delta.

New Kingdom

Era of expansion and imperial power in Egypt.

Hatshepsut

Female pharaoh known for trade expeditions.

Avaris

Hyksos capital, major trade port in Delta.

Kush

Nubian kingdom that rose during the Second Intermediate Period.

Biography of Sinuhe

Literary work reflecting royal propaganda and norms.

Fortresses

Military structures built to secure borders and resources.

Punt

Region Hatshepsut traded with during her reign.

Cult of Amun

Powerful religious group receiving royal donations.

High Priest

Religious leader appointed by the king.

Amenhotep III

Pharaoh known for monumental architecture.

Akhenaten

Pharaoh who promoted Aten worship over Amun.

Hymn to the Aten

Text expressing monotheistic devotion to Aten.