HISTORY - Britain 1625 - 1701: Quest for Political Stability

Summarise the structure of society in 1625

1. The King who believed he had Divine Right (God-given authority to rule as he pleased)

2. Royal Court (king’s friends, servants, royal advisers and nobility)

3. Privy Council who advised king and supervised govt

4. Parliament, Common Law Courts, Prerogative courts (run by Privy Councillors and represented king’s direct authority), Church

5. The people were at the bottom of the hierarchy

What was Charles like? How was he similar to James I?

• Like his father he believed in Divine Right

• He was shy so tended to listen to trusted individuals eg: George Villiers (Duke of Buckingham) rather than parliament

When did Charles succeed the throne and what did he find? What wasn’t able to fix the problem?

• Succeeded to throne March 1625 and found empty treasury

• £60,000 loan from London merchants wasn’t enough to solve financial issues

What did parliament refuse to grant?

• Commons refused to grant Tonnage and Poundage for over a year in 1625

• was in response to disastrous Mansfield Campaign which initiated quarrels between King and Parliament

• MPs suggested that grant should be made for a year so he’d call parliament regularly

What else did Charles have that worsened the mood?

• Marriage to Henrietta Maria of France negotiated by Buckingham, once arrived, established her own court of Catholic advisers - this worsened the mood

• Charles also inherited expensive war with Spain, naval expedition to Cadiz led by Buckingham’s nominee and failed completely, were poorly equipped

Who was George Villiers / Duke of Buckingham?

• Born into minor gentry, introduced to James I in 1614

• James favoured Buckingham, hence his fortunes rose rapidly

• Befriended Prince Charles 1623, attempted to wed him to the daughter of Spanish King but this failed

• Following this their friendship never wavered

What was the 1625 parliament like?

• Disturbed by Henrietta Maria’s arrival and Charles’ promotion of Arminian clergy

• Worsened by foreign policy failures in Germany and Spain (led by Viscount Wimbledon), and conscription of troops + forced billeting (forced putting) of them in people’s houses

• Was dissolved after Commons discussed impeaching Buckingham

What was the 1626/ 27 parliament like?

• Charles needed subsidies but parl ignored this and continued attacking Buckingham

• Angry Commons, Lords and court rivals who Buckingham had driven from office launched impeachment against him

How did Charles respond to the launched impeachment of Buckingham?

• Charles was forced to dissolve parliament again without being granted taxation

• He responded by demanding forced loans from all taxpayers - those who refused would be imprisoned/conscripted

• This seemed to be a direct challenge against the law/ parliament

What was the Five Knights case?

• They’d refused to pay the loan and been imprisoned

• They sued for their release but this was refused as the king claimed the right to their arrest

Why was there conflict in the 1628 parliament?

• Result of Five Knights case led to major confrontation

• Attack on Cadiz led to ruined relations with France, was now at war with them and Spain (Buckingham’s fault)

• Charles needed subsidies to deal with this

How did parliament respond to Charles’ needs in 1628?

• to avoid being dissolved, Parliament granted 5 subsidies

• Also made Petition of Right

What was the Petition of Right 1628?

• Demanded that decision on 5 knights case to be reversed

• no imprisonment without trial

• no forced loans

• no free lodgings for soldiers

How did Charles respond to the Petition of Right?

• Revised it saying he had right to Tonnage and Poundage

• Used same justification to imprison merchants eg: Richard Chambers who refused

• Also appointed William Laud (Arminian cleric) as Bishop of London

How significant was Charles’ response to the Petition of Right?

• Petition of Right offered compromise between him and parliament but Charles ruined it

• Buckingham was also assassinated, so while he grieved, the public and parliament celebrated

What did parliament do in 1629 is response to Charles?

• Parliament begun looking into the breaches of the Petition

• Looked at treatment of merchants refusing to pay Tonnage and Poundage

• Charles ordered them to adjourn following this

• On that day, group of MPs demanded the speaker pass three resolutions against Arminianism, T&P and actions against those who refused to pay it

Why was Charles able to not call parliament back?

People saw the MPs that had forced the passing of the 3 resolutions as having gone too far

What was the mood of the first few years of Personal Rule? What did Charles sign that saved him a lot of money?

• At first it was calm and orderly

• Charles worked well with Laud and Strafford

• Treaty of Madrid 1630 = Charles ends war with Spain saving over £400,000

Why were some of Charles’ financial changes controversial? Why were they a problem for parliament especially?

• 1634 issuing a monopoly patent for soap production

• Levied Ship Money across the country

• Was controversial as normally would only be levied from counties near the coast but this was nationwide and annual = increasing its value

• By 1636 it was annual = regular income from King independent of parliament

• This was a problem as he would have no need for a parliament if he was financially independent

Who implemented the religious changes? What were they and why were they a problem?

• Archbishop Laud enforced Arminian changes using Church and Prerogative courts

• These included replacing Puritan ideas of individual prayer with ritual and formality

• Charles highlighted his divine right with ornate decor in churches, colour and music such as organs

• This forced puritan clergy out of office

How did the Queen make changes?

• Queen also had influence

• had her own cath clergy and encouraged her children and others to be Catholic

How were Charles’ actions resisted 1636? Who in particular?

• Puritan group led by Pym called Pym’s Junto began resisting the changes

• Hampden was one of their contacts who refused to pay Ship Money 1636 which initiated legal challenge

• King won but marginally (7-5 vote) showing many were hostile towards Charles’ changes

• Nonetheless the opposition was defeated, showing lack of voice from Parliament

How did Charles react to those who tried to speak against him? Give an example.

• They were silenced by actions of Privy Council and Prerogative Courts

• 1637 the Star Chamber (one of the prerogative courts) cut off the ears of 3 Puritan writers and branded their cheeks

• This sentence was imposed by Laud

Why did these Arminian changes extend to Scotland cause problems?

• Charles extending his reform to Scotland ensured his failure as king and provoked disorder

• Scottish church was Presbyterian, resented outside influence

What did Charles introduce in Scotland?

• 1636 Book of Canons issued to Scottish clergy - list of instructions as to how to lay out the church and introduced CoE practices

• English prayer book introduced 1637

How did the Scots respond to the Arminian changes?

• 1638 Scots drew up National Covenant to resist this = 1st + 2nd Bishops’ wars in 1639 and 1640

• Treaty of Berwick ended 1st Bishops war, signed by Charles who acknowledged he didn’t have the means to win this war

• Oct 1640 Charles was defeated in 2nd bishops war in Newcastle and forced to pay Scots £850 a day while they occupied the city under the Treaty of Ripon

Why did Charles have to recall parliament 1640? How long did it last?34

• There had been a tax-payer strike 1639-40

• Opposition used this to press for change

• April 1640 Charles dissolved parliament after just 3 weeks as he refused to make changes

• This was called the “Short parliament”

What was the “Long Parliament” 1640-60?

• It allowed Pym’s Junto (the opposition) to force through changes

• They removed Charles’ evil councillors

• Laud and Earl of Strafford were impeached

What were the events of Feb 1641?

Triennial Act forced through whereby Charles had to call parliament at least once every 3 years

What happened in April 1641?

• Strafford put on trail

• the opposition knew the House of Lords wouldn’t find him guilty so they passed an Act of Attainder to force the execution of Strafford

What happened in June 1641?

• Prerogative Courts and Ship Money were abolished

• Middle group emerged led by Edward Hyde called Constitutional Monarchists

• The Ten Propositions were then drawn up, which aimed to increase parliamentary power and they demanded Charles accept them before he left for Scotland

What happened in November 1641?

Grand Remonstrance issued by Pym

Explain why the Grand Remonstrance was made?

• There had been rumours of 200,000 protestant being killed by Catholic Irish

• People feared the English Catholics would try to join in

• MPs decided to raise an army to deal with rebellion but feared it would be used against them by Charle

• Thus Pym made the GR

what was the Grand Remonstrance?

• Thus Pym came up w the GR = parliament should be able to approve king’s choice of commander

• However this only narrowly passed by 11 votes showing divisions in parliament

What in January and June led to war being declared August 1642?

• Jan 1642 - Rumours of Pym trying to impeach the queen so Charles sent warrants for Pym and 4 others arrest but they’d already fled

• June - 19 Propositions issued

• August - Charles raised his standard in Nottingham to declare war!

What did the 19 propositions outline?

• militia be under parl’s control

• parliament raise king’s children

• Lords + commons had to approve privy councillors

Who had the advantage at the beginning of the war?

• Royalists had marginal advantage

• Controlled much of the country, had support of gentry and nobility

• October 1642 - Battle of Edge Hill gave them slight advantage

How was Pym a good leader during the war?

• He established excise tax to sustain parliamentary forces

• Taxed alcohol and tobacco

• He maintained peace during defeats and persuaded the Commons to sign the Solemn League and Covenant with Scots - instrumental in parl victory at Marston Moor 1644

• Prevents “peace party” making negotiations with Charles

What was established in 1645? What did this lead to the creation of?

• Self-denying Ordinance was established as a result of parliament having some poor battles

• this meant some commanders had to resign and be replaced by those more competent eg: Earl of Essex

• The New Model Army was then created through this

• Had 22k men and was led by Lord Fairfax, he chose men by merit NOT status

• June - Battle of Naseby = 1st major success for NMA

How was the New Model Army contstructed? By whom?

• Led by Lord Fairfax, he chose men by merit NOT status

• Had 22k men

• June - Battle of Naseby = 1st major success for NMA

Why were parliament largely keen for a speedy settlement with Charles in 1646? What happened in the end?

• Charles surrenders to Scots so parliament looked for settlement

• no one considering removing him

• Thus both Scots and Parl offered him a settlement but Scot’s was more generous as it gave him more freedom

Why did the Scots offer Charles a settlement? Why did this fail?

• Scots wanted a religious settlement but realised that English Parliament would not give this to them so turned to Charles

• However Charles kept delaying his response to their proposal so gave up in Feb 1647 and handed him to the English

What did parliament offer Charles in July 1646

• Newcastle Propositions offered.

• Parliament was dominated by political Presbyterians wanting to restrict radicalism

What did the Newcastle Propositions demand?

1) parl to nominate key officers of state

2) Parl to control militia for 20 years

3) a Presbyterian Church

What did Ireton publish June 1647? What did it demand?

“Representation of the Army” demanding wider electorate and religious toleration

What did the Heads of Proposals demand and when was it?

• August 1647

• Drafted by Ireton

• looked for biennial parliaments

• 10 year control of militia

• restricted bishop’s power and parl to nominate key officers of state for 10 years

What did the Levellers produce in oct 1647?

‘“Agreement of the People” = more radical demands incl complete religious freedom and annual parliaments with universal male suffrage

Outline the events leading up to Charles I execution

• Charles had signed an agreement with the Scots promising a Presbyterian Church in England for 3 years in return for military assistance

• April 1648 - Scots entered England triggering 2nd civil war, easily defeated by Cromwell in Aug, Charles refused to negotiate about bishops

• Commons hoped to negotiate with Charles but Ireton took drafted “Remonstrance to the Commons” saying King never acted in the interest of the people and he initiated a 2nd civil war

• Sir Thomas Pride then came in and excluded 186 MPs from parliament who favoured negotiation and left a Rump of 240 MPs

When was Charles found guilty and executed?

• 27th Jan 1649 found guilty

• 30th Jan he was beheaded

• the first and last regicide in England

What were the initial actions taken by the Rump Parliament?

• Power was now in hands of the MPs in Westminster

• Rump Parl met in Jan 1649 for first time

• March 1649 Monarchy and House of Lords was abolished

• May 1649 England was declared a commonwealth

What issues did the Rump run into?

• There were threats from Leveller mutiny in Burford and from royalists in Ireland/ Scotland eg: Charles II’s attempted invasion that was defeated 1651

• Army was needed to suppress these threats

• However Army was breeding ground for radical beliefs and was expensive to retain, required large taxation

How did the Rump solve their issues regarding the army? How was this undermined?

• Rump began selling Crown lands April 1649

• However wars eg: 1st Anglo-Dutch war 1652-4 led to shortfall in revenue of £700,000 in 1653

How did the Rump attempt reform? How was it not successful?

• Council of State (similar to the privy council) looked into reforming the law and ending high taxation to appeal to a wide range of social classes

• Hale Commission set up and met for a year in 1651 but its recommendations were never adopted

• Reform was hence v slow, 125 Acts of parl passed 1649 and only 51 in 1652

What did Cromwell do that was seen as controversial?

• Aug 1649 acted controversially in Drogheda, Ireland to suppress Catholic royalist sympathisers

• Slaughtered 1000s of defenders including civilians who had surrendered

When was the Rump dissolved and why?

• Dissolved by Cromwell by force in 1653

• Became clear it was trying to drive through elections that would make a more conservative parliament which would prevent the enactment of the reforms he and the army desired

when was the Nominated Assembly established?

1653

What exactly was the Nominated Assembly?

• Cromwell’s 1st step was to introduce new constitution

• Asked Independent churches and radical groups to nominate assembly of good men who would enact a “godly reformation”

• Once they had been chosen the numbers were reduced down to 140 men

What did the Nominated Assembly become known as?

The “Barebones parliament” after one of their more radical members Nicolas Barbon

What was the Nominated Assembly composed of?

• Had some radical members (5th monarchists who believed end of world was close) but majority were conservative lesser gentry

• They had little interest in making “godly reforms”

What reforms did the Nominated Assembly make?

• Continued war with Dutch as this was crucial to secure trade routes

• Intro of legal measures to help debtors

• Regulations regarding treatment of lunatics

• Civil marriage allowed officiated by JPs

What problems arose out of the Nominated Assembly?

• Cromwell needed to carry out reforms while keeping the conservative lesser gentry on his side too

• Radical “saints” in the Assembly (5th monarchists) felt they couldn’t work with the “sinners” of conservative gentry

What happened to the Nominated Assembly Dec 1653

Less radical members vote to dissolve the Assembly

What happened following the failure of the Nominated Assembly?

• General Lambert drew up the Instrument of Government

• This new constitution which put executive authority in Cromwell’s hands + a Council of State of 21 people

How was the government run under the First Protectorate?

• Lord Protector (Cromwell) supported by Council of State and single-chamber parl of 460 members

• Parl elected every 3 years by those who owned at least £200 of property, would sit for 5 months minimum

• Cromwell head of NMA

• When he died there would be a new Protector elected by Council of State

what was religious toleration like under the First Protectorate?

There was state church but free worship for all except Catholics and those who supported the episcopacy

How was the First Protectorate initially successful?

• Had some initial success in 1st parliament

• 84 ordinances (orders) issuesd

• Postal services improved, roads maintained and laws prohibiting blasphemy and drunkenness were made

What problems faced the First Protectorate?

• However bitter Republican MPs (who had been excluded after Rump was dissolved) resented Cromwell, didn’t like power being all in one man

• They didn’t recognise the legitimacy of the Instrument of Government and destabilised the parliament

• Thus Cromwell dissolved it Jan 1655

When was the First Protectorate dissolved?

Cromwell dissolved it Jan 1655

Why did Cromwell input the major generals?

Spring 1655 there was a royalist uprising showing Cromwell he needed greater control

How did the rule of the Major Generals work?

• Divided county into 11 districts each under the command of a major-general

• They’d be responsible for local govt and security and attempt to reform the manners of civilians

• This would be assisted by new militia funded by 10% tax on all royalist estates

How effective were the Major Generals?

• Some MGs didn’t bother

• others took it too far and made it unpopular restricting social activities eg: theatres banned

What was the Commissions of Triers and Ejectors?

• Established by Cromwell to supervise running of the church

• Goals was to check on/ improve quality of preaching and ensure flexibility allowed in people’s beliefs

When was Cromwell offered the Crown?

1657 by the 2nd protectorate

Why did the 2nd Protectorate offer Cromwell the crown?

• They hoped to direct his power into more traditional channels like a king

• This would have defined Cromwell’s power clearly but limited it by law

How did Cromwell show his ability to compromise with the 2nd protectorate

• The MGs were unpopular and parl said they needed to be replaced

• Cromwell recognised a need to compromise and a new constitution was drawn up

Who offered the Humble Petition and Advice and when?

1657 by the 2nd protectorate parliament

What was the Humble Petition and Advice?

• Was a new constitution made based on the restoration of monarchy

• Consisted of Government by a king (later Lord Protector when Cromwell denied the crown)

• Lords and Commons to govern with Protector

• hereditary succession

• parl to control army

• regular elections

• limited religious toleration

What did the Humble Petition mean for Cromwell? How could it have helped him?

• “king” confirmed trad rules would be used again

• It would have helped restore stability and made provisions for his successor

• Some royalists welcomed the Petition as it was a step back towards a monarchy

Why did Cromwell decide to decline the throne?

• However he didn’t accept bc he desired a “godly reformation” and he believed army was the way to achieve this

• Many in the army opposed the Humble Petition

When did Cromwell die?

Sep 1658

What happened following Cromwell’s death?

• Was succeed by son Richard who summoned 3rd protectorate parliament Jan 1659

• He was a poor military commander and was forced to resign later that year

• The Rump was recalled and realising Richard was unacceptable leader, General Monck marches his forces to London to restore a free parliament and restore the Stuart Monarchy

Outline the events of 1660 leading to restoring the monarchy

• Jan - Gen. Monck took troops to London to restore order

• Feb - MPs removed during Pride’s Purge allowed to return so Long Parliament dissolves itself

• April - Declaration of Breda issued by Charles II to newly elected Convention Parliament

What did the Declaration of Breda outline?

• Charles promised to co-operate with parliament

• Forgive actions of 1642-60

• Religious toleration permitted

• Army’s wages would be paid

• He also passed an Act of Indemnity and Oblivion which pardoned supports of Cromwell other than those who signed the Death Warrant

How was Charles received?

• Landed in Dover in May to a warm welcome

• However he claimed it was his 12th year of reigning, causing some questions

• He also still upheld that he had divine right to rule

How did the Convention Parliament seek to solve the problems which led to the Civil War?

• Retained 1641 Triennial Act

• Ensured parliamentary control of militia

• Confirmed abolition of prerogative courts = limited monarch’s power

• Restored Anglican Church and bishops

When was the Conv. parliament dissolved?

Dec 1660

What followed the dissolution of the Convention Parliament?

• 1661 Fifth Monarchist Thomas Venner staged failed rebellion = renewed fears of radicalism

• Led to elections being conservative majority, new parliament was “Cavalier Parliament” as it was mostly royalist

• This undid the work of the Convention Parliament

Give an example of the changes imposed by the Cavalier Parliament

• Militia Act 1661 put KING in charge of militia

• Triennial Act 1664 didn’t force king to call parliament

How did the Cavalier Parliament stir religious conflict at the Savoy Palace?

• Savoy Palace conference was planned to work out details of new Anglican settlement

• Presbyterian royalists wanted to allow moderate Puritans

• High church party wanted Laudian system

• Latitudinarians wanted flexibilty

What was the outcome of the Savoy Palace conference?

• Venner’s rebellion instilled fear of radicalism

• Meant High Church party won

What was the Act of Uniformity and when was it? How many ministers were forced out?

• 1662

• It restored the Laudian Church and forced 1,800 minister out as they couldn’t conform to strict regulations

What was the unprecedented effect of the 1662 Act of Uniformity?

in making so many of them “dissenters” the non-conformists became much stronger and more influential ensuring they wouldn’t be completely removed

What were Charles II’s financial issues?

• He needed to raise taxation quickly as neither convention nor cavalier parl would grant him enough

• He couldn’t use forced loans or levy ship tax

How did Charles II attempt to solve these financial issues?

• introduced Hearth Tax

• Raised only £250,000 in 1662 and less each following year

• Did however receive £1.2 mil a year from customs duties

Why were MPs pleased about his financial problems?

• Meant Charles relied on parliament

• he didn’t have independence from them even on issues of foreign policy as he needed their financial backing

What else did Charles want that wasn’t granted?

A tolerant church but this was overridden by Parliament and the High Church party

How did Charles II’s attempt to suspend the Act of Uniformity cause people to suspect him of Catholicism?

• 1662 he attempted to suspend Act of Uniformity and introduce Declaration of Indulgence to provide some religious toleration but Anglican Parl forced him to withdraw it

• This was prob to protect dissenters and reduce tensions with Ireland and Scots, but would have also helped the Catholic cause

How did Charles II’s foreign affairs contribute to people’s fears of his Catholicism?

• His foreign policy was pro-French, not surprising as mother was from there

• 2nd Anglo-Dutch war helped Louis XIV of France destroy Protestant Republic but England was defeated

• 1670 - Treaty of Dover = secret clause with France promising open conversion to Catholicism with French subsidies in return

Who did Charles replace James Clarendon with?

Charles replaced James Clarendon with the “Cabal” including 2 catholics

Which two other events suggested England was moving towards Catholicism?

• 1668 - James II announced conversion to Catholicism

• 1665 - Great Plague and 1666 Great Fire of London seen by some as the work of Catholic advisers to the king