Biology Final

What are the most 4 common elements in living things?

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

Ionic Bonds

weak bond formed by transfer of electrons between atoms but they do not make a molecule, only stick them together

Hydrogen Bonds

polar water molecules create weak molecular attractions to each other

Polar Covalent Bonds

strong bonds formed when atoms share electrons equally, resulting in the formation of molecules

Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

strong bonds formed when atoms physically share electrons unequally, resulting in the formation of molecules

What functional group is this?

Hydroxyl

What functional group is this?

Methyl

What functional group is this?

Carbonyl

What functional group is this?

Carboxyl

What functional group is this?

Amino

What functional group is this?

Phosphate

What functional group is this?

Sulfhydryl

Why is carbon so good for life?

can form 4 covalent bonds with other elements, is the ultimate lego building block and can create multiple different compounds

What pH value(s) correlate with acidity?

1-6

What pH value(s) correlate with neutral?

7

What pH value(s) correlate with basic?

8-14

What are the properties of water?

polar, unique structure, and high specific heat capacity

Explain Polar property of water

have positive charge on one side (H) and negative charge on the other side (O₂), leading to its ability to form hydrogen bonds.

Explain Unique Structure property of water

covalent bonds that hold O₂ to H within molecule so Oxygen and Hydrogen electrons are shared

Explain High Specific Heat property of water

can absorb large amounts of heat without significantly changing temperature, which helps regulate temperature in environments.

How does water dissolve in ions like NaCl?

molecules surround and interact with the Na⁺ and Cl^- ions due to its polar nature, allowing it to pull the ions apart and dissolve them in solution.

Carbohydrate Elements

C, H, O

Carbohydrate Monomer

monosaccharide

Carbohydrate Examples

cellulose, sucrose, and glucose

Carbohydrate Roles

quick energy, storage, building material, used in cellular respiration

Lipid Elements

C,H,O,P

Lipid Monomer

glycerol and fatty acids

Lipid Examples

Steroids (cortisol), phospholipids, and waxes

Lipid Roles

fats (insulation), store energy, chemical messenger (steroids), protection (waxes), components of cell membrane

Protein Elements

C,H,O,N,S

Protein Monomer

amino acids

Protein Examples

enzymes and antibodies

Protein Roles

messenger, structural, transport, storage

Nucleic Acid Elements

C, H,O,N,P

Nucleic Acid Monomer

nucleotides

Nucleic Acid Examples

DNA and RNA

Nucleic Acid Roles

store, transmit, and express genetic information

What are the functional groups inside of the base amino acid?

Carboxyl, Amino, and R-side chain

Which biomolecule can have mutations?

nucleic acid

What kind of bond is formed between amino acids to build proteins?

polypeptide bonds

Hydrolysis

using water to break bonds

Dehydration Synthesis

remove water to form bonds

What is an independent variable?

factor that is manipulated in an experiment to determine its effect on a dependent variable

What is an dependent variable?

factor that is measured in an experiment to assess the impact of the independent variable

What is an enzyme?

a protein that acts as a catalyst for chemical reactions

What does it mean when an enzyme/protein denatures?

a change in shape that prevents it from functioning properly.

What causes enzymes/proteins to denature?

Factors such as high temperatures, extreme pH levels, or certain chemicals

A cell with 40% solute is put in a solution of 90% water, is it hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic?

hypotonic

A cell with 40% solute is put in a solution of 90% water, does it shrink, swell or stay the same?

swells

Eukaryotes

Organisms with complex cells containing a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles

Viruses

Small infectious agents that replicate only inside the living cells of an organism

What traits do eukaryotes, prokaryotes and viruses all have in common?

all evolve and have DNA

Tight Junction

impermeable, and fuses cells (ex. stomach lining)

Gap Junction

permeable, proteins channels that connect cells, and allows for easy exchange

Anchoring Junction

semipermeable, connect at single point, and link using cytoskeleton

What is the pathway for making a protein?

transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, followed by translation of mRNA to an amino acid chain at the rough ER, then folding and post-translational modifications in the Golgi apparatus, and finally the export of the protein from the cell membrane

What are the two main structures found on cell membranes used for cell signaling and recognition?

membrane proteins and glycolipids

What is the role of glucose in living organisms?

simple sugar that is a main source of energy for cells

What process is glucose a reactant for?

Cellular Respiration

What kind of surface area to volume ratio is ideal for cells? Why?

high ratio because it facilitates efficient transport of materials in and out of the cell, supporting better metabolic functioning.

Diffusion

the passive movement of molecules from high to low concentration

Facilitated Diffusion

how molecules pass through the cell membrane via specific transport proteins, allowing substances that can't directly go thru bilayer to cross in/out of cell

Active Transport

moving molecules across cell membrane against concentration gradient using energy, typically in the form of ATP.

Nucleus

control center, protects DNA, and site of ribosomal assembly

Nucleolus

site of ribosomal assembly

Rough ER

studded with ribosomes, has tubular cisternae, and produces proteins for export

Smooth ER

lacks ribosomes, has tubular cisternae, produces lipids, and detoxes poisons

Golgi Apparatus

fat sacs, received vesicle from ER, and modified packages/sorts substances

Lysosome

contains enzymes, digests foods, breaks down worn out organelles, eats invaders, and made at golgi

Centriole/Centrosome

made of microtubules and organizes them (directs mitosis/meiosis)

Mitochondria

site of cellular respiration, all eukaryotes have them, and inner membrane is called cristae

Chloroplast

site of photosynthesis, originated from cyanobacteria, and produces glucose (not ATP)

Vacuole

stores water/waste/sugars, and is central/large in plants

Ribosome (not an organelle)

made of RNA/proteins, synthesizes proteins, found in rough ER/cytoplasm and both Eukaryotic and prokaryotic have them

What is the equation for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP

What is the equation for photosynthesis?

light + 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6 O2

How do cellular respiration and photosynthesis relate to each other?

They are complementary processes and both involve the flow of energy

Aerobic

uses oxygen

Anaerobic

does not use oxygen

NADH and FADH₂

electron carriers that transfer energy during cellular respiration

Glucose in Cellular Respiration

a simple sugar that is a primary energy source for cells during cellular respiration

Oxygen in Cellular Respiration

molecule used as the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration, enabling ATP production

CO₂ in Cellular Respiration

product of cellular respiration during the Krebs cycle.

H₂O in Photosynthesis

breaks down into O₂ and H+ which releases electrons to start the light dependent reactions

CO₂ in Photosynthesis

product utilized during the Calvin cycle to synthesize glucose

NADPH and ATP in Photosynthesis

energy carriers produced in the light-dependent reactions that provide energy for the Calvin cycle

Light in Photosynthesis

necessary for the light-dependent reactions to occur, as it drives the conversion of water into oxygen and energizes electrons.

What are the mains steps in aerobic respiration?

Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, ETC, and ATP Synthase (oxidative phosphorylation)

Which step is in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

glycolysis

Why/how is glycolysis found in all living things?

it is the 1st step of any kind of ATP generation, whether there’s oxygen or not

Where does light dependent reactions occur?

inside thylakoid membrane

Where does Calvin cycle occur in photosynthesis?

inside stroma

What are the products of photosynthesis?

oxygen and glucose

What are the inputs of photosynthesis?

water, CO2, and light

What “batteries” go into Calvin Cycle from Light Reactions?

ATP and NADPH

What “batteries” go out if Calvin Cycle and into Light Reactions?

NADP+ and ADP

Oxidized

loss of electrons

Reduced

gain of electrons

How much ATP is made from glycolysis?

4 (net 2)