ap pysch myers textbook unit 4

sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

bottom-up processing

is an analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

top-down processing

is an information processing approach that begins with the brain's higher-level cognitive processes and works down to interpret sensory input.

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

the inability to notice changes in the environment, often due to a lack of focused attention.

pyschophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli such as their intensity and our psychological experience of them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

signal detection theory

a theory that explains how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation, incorporating decision-making processes. assuming there is no single absolute threshold and the detection is based on a person’s experiences.

subliminal

messages that are below the threshold of conscious awareness, often used to influence behavior without the individual being aware. (below one’s absolute threshold)

priming

the activation of certain associations, often unconsciously, of certain associations which can influence perceptions and responses and memory

framing

the way information is presented, which can significantly affect decision-making and judgment.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time, also known as just noticeable difference (JND).

weber’s law

the principle stating that for a difference to be perceptible, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount.

sensory adaptation

the reduced sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure, allowing individuals to focus on changes in their environment.

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

wavelength

the distance between successive peaks of a wave, which influences the color of light or the pitch of sound. ((blueish) short wavelength=high frequency/ (reddish) long wavelength=short frequency)

hue

the dimension of color determined by the wavelength of light, which allows us to perceive different colors.

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, perceived as brightness or loudness, respectively. It is determined by the wave's amplitude.

pupil

the adjustable opening in the eye that regulates the amount of light entering.

iris

the colored part of the eye surrounding the pupil, which controls the size of the pupil and thus the amount of light that enters the eye.

lens

a transparent structure behind the pupil that helps focus light onto the retina.

retina

the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that captures visual information and sends it to the brain. it contains cones and neurons

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus on near or far objects.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, gray. it is necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when the cones do not respond

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the fovea/ center of retina and it functions in daylight or well light conditions. they detect fine detail and color

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye cones clutter

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot because there’s no receptor cells located there.

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. passes information to other areas of the brain as well

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. it contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

young-helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors- one sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue. which then can produce any perception of color by a combination of them.

opponent process theory

theory that opposing colors (red/green. blue/yellow. black/white) enable color vision. some cells are stimulated or inhibited by colors in a pairing

audition

the sense of hearing

frequency

the # of wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

pitch

the tone experienced highness or lowness. it depends on frequency

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger verve impulses. it has hair cells and the beginning tubes are for high pitch and the ones near the end are for lower pitches

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

vestibular organ/sac

like a sack that contains fluid. are vesibules. semicircular canals control balance and when its shaken up, the fluid is messed up, and the person has balance issues

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, this enabling us to sense its pitch.

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrode threaded into the cochlea.

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sense

sense of position, body balance, and sense of balance

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. the “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

sweet

energy source

salty

sodium essential to physiological processes

sour

potentially toxic acid

bitter

potential poisons

umami

proteins to grow and repair tissue

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

smell route

1. odorants bind to receptors

2. olfactory receptor cells are activated and send electric signals

3. the signals are relayed thru converged axons

4. the signals are transmitted to higher regions of the brain

gestalt

how integrated parts of information look as a whole

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings (like the fish bird drawing)

proximity

we group nearby figures together like (3 sets of 2 lines instead of 6 lines)

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similarity

we group similar figures together. we see vertical lines of the same shape and not horizontal lines of random shapes

continuity

we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

connectedness

because they are uniform and linked, we perceive each set of two dots and the line between them as a single unit

._. (as one unit)

closure

we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object. like the semi circle triangle drawing

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cues

depth cues such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes. the brain computes distance. the greater distance between the two objects, the closer the object is

monocular cues

depth cues such as interposition and linear perspective that are available to one eye

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, color, size, lightness no matter what)

context

fills in gaps of information/ uses info to gather a conclusion

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena