Psychology of Personality - Exam 1

Personality

A dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create the person’s characteristics patterns of behavior characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts, & feelings

Intrapersonal Functioning

The process w/in a person (i.e. dynamic organization) or the ‘whats going on’ inside the individual

Psychophysical Systems

The biological and psychological processes that interact to influence an individual's behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

• These systems include genetic, neurological, and environmental factors which shape how a person interacts w/ the world

What are the two qualities personality displays?

Distinctiveness & Consistency (across time & situations)

How can personality be displayed?

Observable Behavior, Thoughts, and Emotions.

Hippocrates

was an ancient Greek physician often referred to as the "Father of Medicine". He proposed the theory of the four humors, suggesting that personality traits are influenced by bodily fluids.

What were the 4 humors?

Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile.

Phrenology

A pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits and personality characteristics.

It was thought that:

• the relative size of these different regions should be indicative of their power & strength

• since the skull ossifies over the brain during infant development, external craniological surface could be used to diagnose the internal state

Psychoanalysis

A therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that focuses on exploring the unconscious mind to understand and treat psychological disorders.

• most behaviors are controlled by unconscious desires

• free associations

• dream interpretation

Why is perspective important to the study of psychology?

Because in psychology as it shapes how we understand human behavior, influences research methodologies, and guides therapeutic approaches.

• Different perspectives, such as biological, cognitive, and sociocultural, provide varied insights into mental processes and personality.

What are some problems w/ the study of psychology?

1.) How can we understood everything about a person?

2.) If science is about finding generalities & universals, can we study individuals scientifically?

Theory

A summary statement, a general principle or set of principles about a class of events that aims to explain and predict phenomena.

Empiricism

The process of using evidence from the sense or from instruments (photos, timers, weight scales, questionnaires, etc.) as the basis for conclusions in scientific research and understanding.

Quantifiable

Capable of being measured or expressed in numerical terms.

How do we study personality scientifically?

Two Parts:

• How we design our studies

• How we measure our constructs (personality variables)

Case Study

A in depth study of one person, usually over a long period of observations & typically some unstructured interviews

What are some famous examples of case studies?

• Phineas Gage - rod through the skull guy

• Henry Molaison - hippocampus removed to stop seizures guy

• Anna O. - Pt of Freud’s friend that likely had psychosis, led Freud to postulate his theories

• Washoe the Chimp

What are the benefits of case studies?

• Ability to study one person very in-depth

• Can study rare phenomenon

What are drawbacks of case studies?

• Findings are not generalizable

• Very susceptible to researcher bias/interpretation

Correlational Studies

Research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables, determining how they may change together without implying causation.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related, indicating the direction and strength of their relationship.

• usually calculated w/ Perasons ‘r’ correlation

Pearson’s ‘r’ Correlation

A statistical method used to measure the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two continuous variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

• The sign (+/-) of the ‘r’ value represents the association direction

What are the benefits of correlation studies?

Good for describing & predicting relationships between variables, allowing researchers to identify patterns and make informed decisions based on data.

What are the drawbacks of correlational studies?

Cannot infer causality (which is often what we want to know)

What can correlations tell us?

If there IS a reliable, meaningful relationship between 2 variables

What can correlations NOT tell us?

The direction of the relationship or whether one variable causes changes in another.

The Reverse Causality Problem

variables X & Y are associated, but not in the way we might think; Y may actually cause X.

The Third Variable Problem

the existence of a plausible alternative explanation for an association between two variables

• typically only in correlational studies

• X & Y are related but Z may also be involved

Examples of Correlation vs. Causation

• The relationship between ice cream sales & the rate of polio

• The relationship between the number of churches & violent crime

Experimental Studies

Studies that manipulate one variable to determine a cause & effect relationship between 2 variables

• usually happens in a controlled environment, like a lab

Measured Variable

A variable that is observed and recorded in a study, often used to assess the relationship with other variables.

• the dependent variable

Manipulated Variable

A variable that is intentionally changed or controlled in an experiment to test its effects on the dependent variable.

• the independent variable

Trait

An enduring pattern of thinking & feeling behavior that cannot be manipulated or changed easily, often used to describe consistent characteristics of individuals.

State

A temporary and fluctuating pattern of thinking, feeling, or behaving that can change based on situational factors.

What are the benefits of experimental studies?

• eliminates the third variable problem

• allows researchers to make inferences about causality

• provides control over variables and conditions, leading to more reliable results.

What are the drawbacks of experimental studies?

• usually done in a lab setting (not ‘real life’)

• some variables cannot be manipulated

• since ‘personality’ is difficult/impossible to manipulate, these studies are very rare in the study of personality

Statistical Significance

refers to the likelihood that a result or relationship is caused by something other than mere chance.

• in psychology, it helps determine if findings are meaningful and can be generalized.

Random (or chance) Variation

refers to the variability in data that arises by chance and is not due to any specific factor or treatment.

• it is important to account for random variation when interpreting results in research

• can obscure true effects and lead to incorrect conclusions

Meaningful Variation

refers to differences in data that are statistically significant and have practical implications, rather than being due to random chance.

• it is crucial for drawing valid conclusions in psychological research.

• an effect that will repeat even when the other random factors do not

Null Hypothesis

a default assumption that there is no effect or relationship between variables, serving as a basis for statistical testing.

Null-Hypothesis Significance Testing

a statistical method that uses the null hypothesis to determine if there is enough evidence to reject it, thereby suggesting a significant effect or relationship between variables.

p-value

a measure that indicates the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the observed results, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

• a low value suggests strong evidence against the null hypothesis.

• smaller values are desired

• the arbitrary convention is < 0.5

Barnum Effect

the tendency for individuals to see vague (usually positive), general statements as personally meaningful, often used in personality assessments

Construct/Conceptual Variable

an explanatory concept that is not itself directly observable but that can be indirectly inferred from observed or measured data

• Ex) Introversion/Extroversion

Operational Definition

specifies concrete replicable procedures designed to represent a construct

• how we make something quantifiable, by defining it in measurable terms

• this will never fully capture the theoretical construct; however, we can try & get as close as possible

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

a widely used self-report instrument for measuring self-esteem, consisting of a series of statements that individuals rate to assess their overall self-worth.

Subjective Measures

assessments based on personal opinions, feelings, or beliefs

• open to interpretation, and may vary significantly between individuals.

Objective Measures

assessments that rely on observable and quantifiable data, minimizing personal bias and interpretation

• requires little/no interpretation

Self Report

Operationalizes a variable by recording people’s answers to questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview

What are the advantages of a self-report?

• if we want to know what one thinks, or what one feels, or what one does - we can just ask

• very easy to complete & analyze (for this reason, it is the most common way of measuring personality)

What are the disadvantages of a self-report?

• bias

• lying

Error

A deviation from the true score in measurement, which can arise from various sources, including bias, random chance, or systematic issues in the assessment process

• randomness

Response Set

a systematic bias in a participant’s response, possibly due to social desirability or acquiesce biases

Socially Desirable Responding

A tendency for respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others, often leading to biased results

• usually not a blatant lie, but might be an exaggerated truth

Acquiesce Bias

a tendency for respondents to agree with statements or questions regardless of their true feelings or beliefs, often skewing survey results.

Reverse-Coding (reverse coding)

items worded in the opposite direction from the measured trait to reduce response set biases

Reference Bias

when people use different standards to evaluate the same thing

• comparing themselves to different groups of people

Informant-Report Scales

operationalize a variable by asking an ‘informant’ (i.e., someone who knows the individual well) to provide information about the individual's traits, behaviors, or characteristics.

Common Informants in Research:

• friends

• family

• roommates

• teachers

SOKA Model (self-other knowledge asymmetry)

plots the evaluative qualities of personality against their observability

• allows us to determine whether or not we should use an informant-report

What are the advantages of the SOKA model?

• other people may have a unique insight into your personality

• can use informant reports when a self-report is not practical

What are the disadvantages of the SOKA model?

• a bit harder to complete than a self-report (requires at least 2 people)

• others may only see us in some settings (vs. others)

• may still be susceptible to biases & blind spots

Behavioral/Observational Measures

operationalizes a variable by directly observing/recording the target behavior (or traces of past behavior)

• Ex) talking, eye contact, number of times visiting the gym, how close you sit/stand to someone else, what you post on social media, what you say, etc.

Coding

A method of recording observations

• how we make observable behavior quantifiable

What are the advantages of behavioral/observational measures?

• measuring what people actually do (not what they say they do)

• often considered the gold standard in psychology (“actions speak louder than words”)

What are the disadvantages of behavioral/observational measures?

• very difficult to collect data

• data often must be coded before it can be analyzed

Physiological Measures

Operationalizes a behavior by assessing physical reactions

• Ex) HR, hormone levels, sweating, fMRI, BP, etc.

What are the advantages of physiological measures?

Objective measures (free from personal or experimental bias)

What are the disadvantages of physiological measures?

• may be incomplete

• many of these measures (especially fMRI) are still relatively new & not fully understood

How can we know if our operational definition is appropriate?

• Reliability

• Validity

Triangulation

A method used to enhance the credibility of research findings by combining multiple perspectives, methods, or data sources.

Reliability

When a measure has a high degree of consistency or repeatability

How can we assess reliability?

• Test-retest method

• Internal

• Intercoder

Test-retest Reliability

A test that gives us consistent results across repeated measurements

• Does the score at time 1 correlate highly w/ the score time 2?

Why is the MBTI not a ‘good’ scientific measurement?

It lacks strong empirical support and reliability, as it categorizes individuals into distinct types without accounting for the spectrum of personality traits

• often produces inconsistent measurements

• as many as ¾ of test takers achieve a different personality type when tested again

• ~ a 50% chance that one will fall into a different personality category

Who developed the MBTI?

Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Cook Briggs

Internal Reliability

When participants give consistent responses, no matter how the question is phrased

• applies to self-report measures

What factors can influence someone’s response to a questionnaire item?

• Their true score on some construct

• Random error

• Mood

How can we better fortify responses to questionnaires to account for their disadvantages?

Ask lots of questions in slightly different ways & average the scores together

How can we assess internal reliability?

Cronbach’s alpha

Cronbach’s Alpha

A statistical measure used to assess the internal consistency or reliability of a set of scale or test items.

• calculated like a correlation (ranging from 0 to 1), but can’t be negative

• higher numbers indicate greater reliability

• We usually want an value > 0.70

Intercoder (inter-rater) Reliability

A measure of consistency used to evaluate the extent to which different judges agree in their assessment decisions

• only applies to behavioral/observational measures

(Construct) Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Is a reliable, consistent variable enough to prove a given theory?

No

What else, besides reliability, do we need to prove a given theory?

Validity

What are the 5 ways we can assess validity?

• Face validity

• Criterion (or predictive) validity

• Convergent validity

• Discriminant validity

• Content validity

Face Validity

Does the measure appear ‘on its face’ to measure what it says it does?

• it is subjective and based on the judgment of the test takers and experts.

• does it ‘look like’ what we want to measure

• the goal of the test is clear, even to non-experts

Why is face validity sometimes considered ‘weak’ evidence of a measure?

Because it relies on subjective judgment rather than empirical evidence, making it less reliable in determining actual measurement effectiveness.

Criterion (predictive) Validity

The extent to which a measure is correlated w/ a relevant observable outcome or behavior, indicating the measure's effectiveness in forecasting future performance.

Criterion

A standard on which a judgement or decision may be based or a benchmark for evaluating the effectiveness of a measure

Why is criterion validity considered the best evidence for validity?

Because it demonstrates a strong empirical relationship between the measure and actual outcomes, providing concrete evidence of its predictive capabilities.

What are some examples of concrete outcomes or behaviors?

• GPA

• how long you spend talking

• # of times you actually visit the gym

What does NOT count as a concrete outcome or behavior?

• any self-report measure

• internal feelings or subjective states

• self-esteem

Convergent Validity

When a scale correlates w/ a similar self-report scale (measuring the same or very similar constructs) and shows that the measure is accurately capturing the intended concept.

Discriminant Validity

When a measure does not correlate (too highly) w/ unrelated constructs (i.e. confounding variables)

Content Validity

Covering all parts of a construct (as defined by the theory)

• Ex) Measuring both the cognitive & physical components of depression

  • Cognitive component: negative thoughts, etc.

  • Physical component: pain, change in sleep habits

Culture

Customs, values, beliefs, & behaviors characteristic of a nation, ethnic group, class, or time period

Michele Gelfand

A prominent psychologist known for her research on cultural differences and their impact on behavior and personality.

Edward T. Hall

An anthropologist and psychologist known for his work on proxemics and the study of personal space in different cultures.

• developed the Cultural Iceberg Model

The Cultural Iceberg Model

A concept, proposed in 1976, that illustrates how much of culture is hidden beneath the surface, including values, beliefs, and assumptions, while only a small portion is visible through behaviors and customs.

• in reality, only ~ 10% of an iceberg is visible above the waterline, the majority is submerged, representing the deeper, often unrecognized aspects of culture.