Psych 305: Psychology of Being Human (First Half of Course Content)

Humanness

The status of being seen as fully human, meaning someone is perceived as having a complex mind, emotions, agency, and moral worth (e.g., seeing someone as capable of thinking, feeling, and deserving rights); in the course, humanness is not equally applied to all groups, and differences in who is granted humanness explain inequality, exclusion, and harm

Dehumanization

The denial of one's full humanity, where others are seen as less human, less complex, or less morally important (e.g., describing groups as animals or objects); in the course, this is the core process that allows violence, discrimination, and indifference to occur

What does humanness inform?

How we structure society, how we treat others, and how we assign moral worth (e.g., who gets rights, protection, or empathy); in the course, definitions of humanness directly shape social hierarchies and systems of inequality

Positive understanding of human

Defining humans based on valued traits (e.g., rationality, morality, empathy), which can elevate some groups while excluding others who are seen as lacking these traits; in the course, this creates conditional humanness

Negative understanding of human

Defining humans by what they are not (e.g., not animals or machines), which reinforces boundaries between "us" and "them"; in the course, this makes it easier to push others outside of humanity

Aesop's Fables

Stories suggesting humans were once animals and gained human qualities, implying humanness can vary (e.g., some people seen as more "animal-like"); in the course, this supports the idea that humanness is not fixed or equal

Aristotle

Defined humans by rationality and essential traits (e.g., reason as what makes us human); in the course, this shows how defining a single trait can justify excluding those who lack it

Boethius

Argued people can lose their humanity through immoral behavior (e.g., calling criminals "beasts"); in the course, this shows how moral failure is used to justify dehumanization

Contested humans

Beings whose humanness is debated (e.g., AI, fetuses, severely impaired individuals); in the course, this highlights that humanness is socially and morally constructed, not automatic

Theological anthropology (John H Evans)

The belief that humans are made in the image of God (Imago Dei) and have inherent worth (e.g., all humans deserve dignity regardless of ability); in the course, this protects against dehumanization because humanness is unconditional

Eric Fromm

Argued humans became fully human through gaining free will and moral awareness (e.g., the "fall" creates responsibility); in the course, this links humanness to autonomy and existential choice

Philosophical anthropology (John H Evans)

Defines humanness through a cluster of traits (e.g., rationality, emotion), often as a continuum; in the course, this is risky because it allows people to be seen as more or less human

Biological anthropology (John H Evans)

Defines humans based on genetics and evolution (e.g., humans as a species); in the course, this shows that biology alone does not explain moral worth or treatment

Socially conferred anthropology (John H Evans)

The idea that humanness is granted through social relationships (e.g., being recognized and included by others); in the course, exclusion leads directly to dehumanization

Socialization (Ernest Becker)

The process of becoming human through learning language, norms, and meaning (e.g., infants becoming social beings); in the course, humanness is something we develop through society

Individuality-within-finitude (Becker)

The idea that humans are both symbolic beings (with identity and meaning) and physical, mortal bodies; in the course, this tension creates existential anxiety (basis of TMT)

Infra-humanization Theory

The tendency to see one's ingroup as more fully human than outgroups (e.g., thinking "we feel deeper emotions than them"); in the course, this shows subtle, everyday dehumanization

Primary Emotions

Basic emotions shared with animals (e.g., fear, anger, joy); in the course, attributing only these to outgroups makes them seem less complex and more animal-like

Secondary Emotions

Complex emotions seen as uniquely human (e.g., guilt, shame, nostalgia); in the course, denying these to outgroups reflects reduced humanness

Dual-Component Model (Haslam)

The idea that humanness has two dimensions: human uniqueness and human nature; in the course, this explains different types of dehumanization

Human Uniqueness (Haslam)

Traits that separate humans from animals (e.g., Civility, Refinement, Moral sensibility, Rationality, Maturity); in the course, denying these leads to animalistic dehumanization

Human Nature (Haslam)

Traits that make humans feel alive (e.g., Emotional responsiveness, Interpersonal warmth, Agency, Depth, Cognitive openness); in the course, denying these leads to mechanistic dehumanization

Cubic Model of Humanness (Haslam)

Expands dehumanization into types (explicit vs. subtle, absolute vs. relative); in the course, this shows dehumanization is often hidden and normalized

Animalistic Dehumanization (Haslam)

Seeing others as animal-like (e.g., primitive, irrational); in the course, this is linked to disgust and moral inferiority

Mechanistic Dehumanization (Haslam)

Seeing others as object-like (e.g., cold, robotic); in the course, this is linked to indifference and emotional distance

Earthling vs Schmearthling (Smith)

The idea that some beings look human but are not considered truly human; in the course, this shows humanness depends on perceived essence, not appearance

Counterfeit human beings (Smith)

Entities that look human but are seen as lacking true humanity (e.g., robots or dehumanized groups); in the course, this explains exclusion despite similarity

Essence

The core property believed to define what something truly is (e.g., "what makes a human human"); in the course, this shapes who is included or excluded

Human Essence

The perceived defining qualities of humans (e.g., morality, emotion); in the course, disagreements about this lead to contested humanity

Sortal Essence (Bain)

The traits that categorize something as human (e.g., species membership); in the course, this defines group boundaries

Causal Essence (Bain)

The traits that explain behavior and inner life (e.g., having a mind); in the course, this influences whether others are seen as truly human

Great Chain of Being

A hierarchy ranking all beings (e.g., God > humans > animals); in the course, this shows how societies justify unequal value and treatment

Social Identity

A person's sense of self based on group membership (e.g., nationality, gender); in the course, this shapes who we humanize vs. dehumanize

Social Identity Theory

The idea that people favor their ingroup to maintain self-esteem (e.g., "we are better than them"); in the course, this leads to ingroup humanization and outgroup dehumanization

Roots of TMT

Based on existential psychology and Becker's ideas about mortality and meaning; in the course, this explains why humanness is psychologically important

TMT

The theory that awareness of death creates anxiety, which people manage by defending beliefs, identity, and culture; in the course, this explains prejudice and dehumanization

"Terror"

The anxiety caused by knowing we will die (e.g., existential fear); in the course, this drives defensive behaviours

Anxiety Buffer Hypothesis

The idea that self-esteem and cultural beliefs protect against death anxiety; in the course, losing these leads to stronger dehumanization

DTA Hypothesis

Death thoughts become more accessible when meaning is threatened; in the course, this triggers defensive reactions

MS Hypothesis

Reminders of death increase ingroup bias and hostility toward outgroups; in the course, this explains why dehumanization increases under threat

Creatureliness

Awareness of being a physical, animal-like body (e.g., illness, decay); in the course, this creates discomfort and leads to distancing from animal-like others

Literal Immortality

Belief in an afterlife (e.g., heaven); in the course, this reduces death anxiety

Symbolic Immortality

Living on through legacy (e.g., children, achievements); in the course, this strengthens identity and worldview defence

Media/Archival Studies

Research that analyzes existing media, documents, or historical records (e.g., examining how newspapers describe different racial groups); in the course, this is used to show how dehumanization is embedded in language and representation over time

Correlational Studies

Research that examines relationships between variables without proving causation (e.g., higher SDO linked to more prejudice); in the course, this helps identify patterns of dehumanization but cannot prove what causes them

Experimental Studies

Research that manipulates variables to test cause-and-effect (e.g., mortality salience increasing outgroup bias); in the course, this provides strong evidence that certain conditions (like death reminders) cause dehumanization

Thematic Narrative Analysis

A qualitative method that identifies patterns in people's stories (e.g., refugees describing feeling "less than human"); in the course, this captures real-world experiences of dehumanization

Explicit Measures

Direct measures where participants consciously report beliefs (e.g., rating a group as less evolved); in the course, these capture open, conscious dehumanization

Implicit Measures

Indirect measures that assess automatic associations (e.g., linking groups with animals); in the course, these reveal hidden or unconscious dehumanization

Ascent of Man Scale

A measure where participants rate groups on an evolutionary scale from ape-like to fully human; in the course, this captures blatant dehumanization and willingness to rank groups as less human

Select Measures of Humanness

Tasks where participants choose which traits apply to a group (e.g., selecting emotions); in the course, these reveal which groups are seen as having human qualities

Rate Measures of Humanness

Tasks where participants rate how much a group has certain traits (e.g., warmth, rationality); in the course, these show degrees of humanness attribution

Moral Agency

The capacity to act morally and be responsible for actions (e.g., being blamed for wrongdoing); in the course, groups seen as lacking agency are often not held accountable or are infantilized

Moral Patiency

The capacity to feel pain and deserve moral concern (e.g., being seen as a victim); in the course, denying patiency reduces empathy and justification for harm

Values Similarity Approach (Schwartz & Struch)

The idea that people see others as more human when they share similar values (e.g., "they think like us"); in the course, this explains ingroup bias in humanness attribution

Values Hallmark Approach (Schwartz & Struch)

The belief that certain core values (e.g., morality, fairness) define humanness; in the course, groups seen as lacking these values are dehumanized

Delegitimization (Bar-Tal)

Defining a group as outside the moral community (e.g., calling them immoral or dangerous); in the course, this removes moral limits and justifies harm

Social Dominance Orientation

A preference for group-based hierarchy and inequality (e.g., believing some groups should be "on top"); in the course, this predicts greater dehumanization of lower-status groups

SDO - Dominance Subscale

The belief that some groups should actively dominate and control others, supporting direct hierarchy (e.g., thinking certain groups deserve power over others); in the course, this is linked to overt dehumanization and justification of inequality, where lower-status groups are seen as less deserving or less fully human

SDO - Anti-Egalitarianism Subscale

The belief that groups should not be equal, opposing policies or ideas that promote equality (e.g., resisting redistribution or equal rights); in the course, this is tied to more subtle dehumanization, where inequality is maintained without necessarily endorsing direct domination

Metadehumanization (Kteily)

The belief that another group sees your group as less than human (e.g., "they think we are animals"); in the course, this increases hostility, defensiveness, and intergroup conflict

Disgust and Dehumanization

The idea that feelings of disgust make others seem contaminated or animal-like (e.g., associating groups with disease); in the course, disgust is a key emotion driving animalistic dehumanization

Anthropomorphism

Attributing human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities (e.g., saying a pet "feels guilty"); in the course, this shows that humanness is flexible and can be extended or denied

Weak form anthropomorphism

Attributing simple human-like qualities (e.g., emotions) to non-humans; in the course, this reflects partial extension of humanness

Strong form anthropomorphism

Attributing full human-like minds and intentions (e.g., believing an AI has consciousness); in the course, this reflects full extension of humanness

3 Factor Theory of Anthropomorphism (Epley)

The idea that anthropomorphism is driven by social needs, desire for understanding, and use of human knowledge; in the course, this explains why we sometimes humanize non-humans while dehumanizing humans

Sociality [motivation] (Epley)

The need for social connection (e.g., lonely people humanizing pets); in the course, this increases attribution of humanness

Effectance [motivation] (Epley)

The need to understand and predict the world (e.g., explaining a malfunctioning computer as "stubborn"); in the course, this drives anthropomorphism for control

Elicited-agent Knowledge (Epley)

Using knowledge about humans to interpret non-human agents (e.g., assuming intentions); in the course, this shapes how humanness is applied

Dispositional Factors (Epley)

Stable personality traits that influence anthropomorphism (e.g., tendency to see minds everywhere); in the course, these explain individual differences in humanness attribution

Situational Factors (Epley)

Temporary environmental conditions (e.g., loneliness, uncertainty); in the course, these increase likelihood of anthropomorphism

Developmental Factors (Epley)

Changes across the lifespan (e.g., children anthropomorphize more); in the course, these shape how humanness is understood over time

Cultural Factors (Epley)

Cultural beliefs and norms (e.g., animism vs. scientific thinking); in the course, these influence how humanness is distributed

Objectification

Treating a person as an object rather than a human (e.g., focusing only on appearance or use); in the course, this is a form of mechanistic dehumanization

Instrumentality (Nussbaum)

Treating someone as a tool for one's purposes (e.g., using someone for status or pleasure); in the course, this removes agency and individuality

Denial of autonomy (Nussbaum)

Treating someone as lacking independence (e.g., controlling their choices); in the course, this reduces personhood

Inertness (Nussbaum)

Treating someone as passive or lacking action (e.g., seeing them as unresponsive); in the course, this denies agency

Fungibility (Nussbaum)

Treating someone as interchangeable (e.g., "anyone could replace them"); in the course, this removes uniqueness

Violability (Nussbaum)

Treating someone as lacking boundaries (e.g., violating privacy or body); in the course, this justifies harm

Ownership (Nussbaum)

Treating someone as property (e.g., slavery); in the course, this removes moral rights entirely

Denial of subjectivity (Nussbaum)

Ignoring someone's thoughts and feelings (e.g., not caring about their experience); in the course, this removes empathy

Additional Notions of Objectification (Langton)

Expands objectification to include:

silencing,

focus on appearance, and

reduction to body parts.

In the course, this reinforces loss of agency

Sexualization

Reducing someone to their sexual attributes (e.g., focusing only on body parts); in the course, this often leads to objectification and dehumanization

Cognitive Objectification (Bernard)

Processing people like objects rather than whole individuals (e.g., focusing on body parts); in the course, this reduces perceived humanness

Configural Processing (Bernard)

Seeing a person as a whole (e.g., recognizing a face as integrated); in the course, this supports humanization

Analytical Processing (Bernard)

Breaking a person into parts (e.g., focusing on specific body areas); in the course, this contributes to objectification

Object-recognition (Bernard)

Processing bodies similarly to objects (e.g., recognizing parts rather than the whole); in the course, this reflects dehumanized perception

Sexual Body Parts Recognition Bias hypothesis

The idea that sexualized bodies are processed like objects, with attention to parts rather than the whole; in the course, this is evidence of cognitive objectification

Sexualized Body Inversion Effect

The finding that sexualized bodies are recognized equally well upside-down (like objects); in the course, this shows object-like processing and reduced humanness perception

Social Power

The ability to influence others and control resources (e.g., political or economic authority); in the course, those with more power are more likely to define who is seen as fully human and who is dehumanized