Psychology- AOS 3 SAC 2

Behaviourism

• Psychological approach to learning that explains how behaviour is learnt and influenced through the environment, rather than internal/ mental processes.

classical conditioning

• Is an involuntary behaviourist approach to learning

• occurring through: repeated association of two or more different stimuli to produce a behavioural/ emotional reaction.

Stimuli and responses present in classical conditioning

• Neutral stimulus (NS) -does not normally produce a predictable response

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) -constantly produces a natural/ autonomic response

• Unconditioned response (UCR) -Response that occurs automatically when UCS is present

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) -stimulus that is initially ‘neutral’ however eventually triggers a similar response when UCS is presented

• Conditioned response (CR) -learnt response produced by the conditioned stimulus

Phases of classical conditioning

• Before conditioning: NS produces no relevant response, while UCS elicits an UCR.

• During conditioning/Acquisition: Repeated pairings of NS immediately before the UCS, produces UCR.

• After conditioning: NS becomes the CS, producing a CR similar to the UCR.

Operant conditioning

• Is a voluntary behaviourist approach to learning

• where consequences of behaviour such as reinforcement/ punishment determines the likelihood of that specific behaviour being performed again in the future.

Phases of operant conditioning

• Antecedent: Stimulus/ event that often elicits a particular behaviour

• Behaviour: Voluntary actions that occurs in the presence of the antecedent

• Consequence: Outcome of the behaviour, determining the likelihood that it will occur again

Reinforcement

• Positive - adding a pleasant stimulus to increase or maintain the behaviour

• Negative - removing an aversive stimulus to increase or maintain the behaviour

Punishment

• Positive - adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behaviour

• Negative - removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour

Response cost

Removal of any valued stimulus, wether or not it causes the behaviour (e.g cost for making that response)

Similarities to both approaches to learning

• Both are behaviourist approaches

• Both involve a three phase process of learning

• Both requires several ‘trials’ in order for learning to reliably occur

Differences to both approaches of learning

• Operant conditioning is voluntary, whereas classical is involuntary

• Operant conditioning involves active learning, whereas classical involves passive

• operant conditioning requires consequences whereas classical does not

Observational learning

• A form of social - cognitive learning

• Occurs when someone uses observation of another persons actions and their consequences to guide their own future actions.

Vicarious reinforcement/ punishment

• Vicarious reinforcement -

  • Occurs when an individual observes someone else being rewarded for a behaviour

  • making the observer more likely to imitate the behaviour

• Vicarious punishment -

  • Occurs when an individual observes someone else being punished for a behaviour,

  • making the observer less likely to imitate the behaviour

process of observational learning (5)

• Attention - learner actively focuses attention, observing the modelled behaviour.

• Retention - Learner mentally represents and retains what has been observed (creates memory).

• Reproduction - Depending on physical capabilities and resources available, the learner converts the mental representation into an action.

• Motivation - Learner has a desire to perform the behaviour (internal or external motivation)

• Reinforcement - Once learner has exhibited the action, they are reinforced through consequence.

Multimodal systems of learning

• Learner situated within a system of interconnected knowledge

• That integrates a range of activities such as visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning tools to enhance memory/ knowledge

multimodal systems of knowledge: Con’d

• Knowledge/ skills interconnected with social, physical and spiritual understandings, contributing to survival / sense of identity.

• Systems developed by communities, informed by culture, highly interconnected/ linked to Country.

8 ways of Aboriginal learning framework

• story sharing

• learning maps - planning/ visualising processes of knowledge

• non-verbal - dance, art and observation

• symbols and images

• land links - nature, land, Country

• non-linear - different perspective

• deconstruct/reconstruct -breaking down a concept

• community links - local values, needs and knowledge

Learning embedded in relationships and Country

• Relationships: Learning through relationships within those in community/ elders as they pass on ancestral knowledge.

• Country- Country holds all knowledge and teaches knowledge, nothing can be known without its relationship to place

Memory

The processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.

• The nervous systems capacity to acquire and retain information and skills.

Encoding, storage and Retrieval terms

• Encoding - conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be stored in memory (takes approx. 30min)

• Storage - retention of the encoded information over time

• Retrieval - recovery of stored information into conscious awarenesses for use

sensory memory store

• Function - receive unconscious raw sensory info from external environment.

• Capacity - vast, potentially unlimited storage

• Duration - 0.2 - 4 seconds, if not attended to sensory memory can fade

Sensory registers of sensory memory

• Iconic memory register (visual) - 0.2- 0.4 of a second

• Echoic memory register (sound) - 3- 4 seconds

• haptic memory register (touch) - less than 2 seconds

Short term memory store

• Function - receives sensory information from SM and transfers info to and from long term memory, it involves already encoded information and conscious awareness.

• Capacity - 7(+ or) - 2 pieces, information can be lost from STM due to decay (not being used) or displacement (being pushed out due to too many items)

• Duration - 18-30 seconds, longer if rehearsed

manipulating short term memory

• manipulating capacity - chunking (grouping together of items)

• manipulating duration - maintenance rehearsal (repetition of information in order to restart the 30s time frame)

• manipulating duration - elaborate rehearsal (linking new info to info already stored in long term)

Long term memory store

• Function - Stores encoded information for retrieval and use. Info in LTM is encoded semantically (by meaning)

• STM and LTM = Bi-directional

• Capacity - vast, potentially unlimited

• Duration - potentially permanent (some information can be lost over time)

Explicit memory - type of LTM

• consciously retrieved

• Semantic memory - facts and academic

  knowledge

• Episodic memory - personally experienced events

  • stored in neocortex via the cerebral cortex

Implicit memory - type of LTM

• not consciously retrieved

• Procedural memory - skills and tasks learnt through experience

• classically conditioned memory - classically conditioned responses.

  • stored in cerebellum and basal ganglia

Strengths/ Limitations- Shiffrin model of memory

• Strengths

  • model has different stores, with different capacities/ durations

  • Provides understanding to structure/ process of memory

  • memory studies support this model

• Limitations

  • may be oversimplified, specifically short term memory and how this info is transferred to long term

  • ignores factors such as motivation/ strategy

  • not account for individual differences

Brain structures involved in explicit memories

• Hippocampus: encodes explicit memories and consolidates them for long term storage, within 20-30 min

• Amygdala: encodes/ processes the emotional components of classically conditioned and explicit memories. Strengthening memories encoded by Hippocampus

• Neocortex: apart of cerebral cortex, storing explicit memories. Involved in higher order cognitive function

Brain structures involved in implicit memory

• Basal Ganglia: encoding and storing implicit memories. Associated with formation of habits and motor memory

  • initial formation/ storage of new implicit memories occurs in basal ganglia

• Cerebellum: found at base of the brain, encodes and stores implicit, procedural memories. Vital for the learning and execution of motor skills

Retrieving autobiographical events

• Hippocampus - involved in retrieving semantic memories

• Frontal and Temporal lobes - involved in retrieving episodic memories

  • All these brain structures are activated when recalling past memories (autobiographical events)

Possible future events

• when imagining, the same brain regions (hippocampus, frontal and temporal lobes) are activated as when recalling past/autobiographical events.

• due to the need to draw on past episodic and semantic memories to form a possible image of the future

Alzeihmers disease and observable symptoms

• a neurodegenerative disease, characterised by progressive loss of brain matter

• decrease in cognitive function

• personality change

• difficulty with communication

• frequent confusion/ disorientation

Brain lesions characterising Alzheimers

• KEY Brain regions identified through post-mortem examination:

• Amyloid plaques: protein deposits (beta-amyloid) that forming on axon terminals, blocking neural transmission.

• Neurofibrillary tangles: accumulation of protein ‘tau’, forming insoluble tangles inside neurons, interrupting neural communication/ transmission

  • decreased hippocampal volume/ degeneration of brain tissue

Aphantasia

• Phenomenon when a person cannot voluntarily form mental imagery.

• Episodic memories - recalled lack vivid details

  • struggle to draw on a past memories, impacting their ability to imagine possible future events

Mnemonics

Devices or techniques used to aid the encoding, storage or retrieval of information.

• Involves conscious awarenesses

Mnemonics devices used in written traditions

• Acronyms: first letter of items form a pronounceable word

  • aids in encoding and storage of info, linking new info to words/ sounds already stored in LTM.

  • first letter of the word acts as retrieval clue, helping bring targeted info into STM

• Acrostics: First letter of items creates a phrase, rhyme or poem

  • aids in encoding and storage of info, linking new info to phrases/ sentences already stored in LTM

  • again first letter of each word = retrieval clue

Method of Loci (written tradition)

• Converts items into mental images, associating them with specific locations.

1. Visualise a familiar route/ place

2. Select several memorable places/ landmarks

3. picture the item to be remembered in a location within the route

4. repeat for each item that needs to be remembered

5. recall the items by walking through the route and retrieving each item.

   • Links new info to a previously learnt route/ place aiding in encoding and storage

oral traditions

• Knowledge, stories and customs, preserved and shared through spoken words and movement.

Mnemonics used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities (oral traditions)

• Sung narratives: Stories or important Cultural, Ecological and Survival info, that is conveyed through song.

  • Combines rhythm, melody and narrative to enhance memorability.

• Song lines: Complex systems of knowledge, encoded in song, stories, dancing and ceremonies. Traveling through Country/ Spaces in the landmark.

  • Contain spiritual and ecological info (etc, landmarks, water resources.)

  • Rhythm and narrative enhance encoding, when song lines are sung/ walk through landscape they retrieve info.