Psychology- AOS 3 SAC 2

classical conditioning

Is an involuntary behaviourist approach to learning, occurring through the repeated association of two or more different stimuli to produce a behavioural or emotional reaction.

Stimuli and responses present in classical conditioning

• Neutral stimulus (NS) -does not normally produce a predictable response

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) -constantly produces a natural and autonomic response

• Unconditioned response (UCR) -Response that occurs autonomically when UCS is present

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) -stimulus that is initially ‘neutral’ however eventually triggers a similar response when UCS is presented

• Conditioned response (CR) -learnt response produced by the conditioned stimulus

Phases of classical conditioning

• Before conditioning - Neutral stimulus produces no relevant response, while the unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response.

• During conditioning/Acquisition - Neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce the unconditioned response.

• After conditioning - Neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response similar to the unconditioned response.

Operant conditioning

Is a voluntary behaviourist approach to learning, where consequences of behaviour such as reinforcement and punishment determines the likelihood of that specific behaviour being performed again in the future.

Phases of operant conditioning

• Antecedent - The stimulus or event that often elicits a particular behaviour

• Behaviour - The voluntary actions that occurs in the presence of the antecedent

• Consequence -The outcome of the behaviour, determining the likelihood that it will occur again

Reinforcement

• Positive - adding a pleasant stimulus to increase or maintain the behaviour

• Negative - removing an aversive stimulus to increase or maintain the behaviour

Punishment

• Positive - adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behaviour

• Negative - removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour

Response cost

Removal of any valued stimulus, wether or not it causes the behaviour (e.g cost for making that response)

Similarities to both approaches to learning

• Both are behaviourist approaches

• Both involve a three phase process of learning

• Both requires several ‘trials’ in order for learning to reliably occur

Differences to both approaches of learning

• Operant conditioning is voluntary, whereas classical is involuntary

• Operant conditioning involves active learning, whereas classical involves passive

• operant conditioning requires consequences whereas classical does not

Observational learning

A form of social - cognitive learning that occurs when someone uses observation of another persons actions and their consequences to guide their own future actions.

Vicarious

refers to something being experienced indirectly, and learnt through the experience of others

Vicarious reinforcement/ punishment

• Vicarious reinforcement - Occurs when an individual observes someone else being rewarded for a behaviour, making the observer more likely to imitate the behaviour

• Vicarious punishment - Occurs when an individual observes someone else being punished for a behaviour, making the observer less likely to imitate the behaviour

process of observational learning

• Attention - learner actively focuses attention, observing the modelled behaviour.

• Retention - Learner mentally represents and retains what has been observed (creates memory).

• Reproduction - Depending on physical capabilities and resources available, the learner converts the mental representation into an action.

• Motivation - Learner has a desire to perform the behaviour (internal or external motivation)

• Reinforcement - Once learner has exhibited the action, they are reinforced through consequence.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander processes of learning

• Type of learning where the the learner is situated within a system of interconnected knowledge

• Seeing, hearing, feeling and doing is inherently relevant to to the way of life for and individual and community ,and is connected to time, place, ancestry and spirit.

multimodel systems of knowledge (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander)

• Knowledge and skills are interconnected with social, physical and spiritual understandings, contributing to survival and a sense of identity.

• Systems developed by communities, informed by culture, highly interconnected and linked to country.

8 ways of Aboriginal learning framework

• story sharing

• learning maps - planning and visualising processes of knowledge

• non-verbal - dance, art and observation

• symbols and images

• land links - nature, land, Country

• non-linear - different perspective

• deconstruct/reconstruct -breaking down a concept

• community links - local values, needs and knowledge

Learning embedded in relationships and Country

• Relationships - between concepts, learners and teacher, individuals, families, communities, and Country

• Country- Country holds all knowledge and teaches knowledge, nothing can be known without its relationship to place

Memory

The processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.

• The nervous systems capacity to acquire and retain information and skills.

Encoding, storage and Retrieval terms

• Encoding - conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be stored in memory

• Storage - retention of the encoded information over time

• Retrieval - recovery of stored information into conscious awarenesses for use

sensory memory store

• Function - receive unconscious raw sensory info from external environment.

• Capacity - vast, potentially unlimited storage

• Duration - 0.2 - 4 seconds, if not attended to sensory memory can fade

Sensory registers of sensory memory

• Iconic memory register (visual) - 0.2- 0.4 of a second

• Echoic memory register (sound) - 3- 4 seconds

• haptic memory register (touch) - less than 2 seconds

Short term memory store

• Function - receives sensory information from SM and transfers info to and from long term memory, it involves already encoded information and conscious awareness.

• Capacity - 7(+ or) - 2 pieces, information can be lost from STM due to decay (not being used) or displacement (being pushed out due to too many items)

• Duration - 18-30 seconds, longer if rehearsed

manipulating short term memory

• manipulating capacity - chunking (grouping together of items)

• manipulating duration - maintenance rehearsal (repetition of information within an 18-30s time period)

• manipulating duration - elaborate rehearsal (linking new info to info already stored in long term)

Long term memory store

• Function - Stores encoded information for retrieval and use. Info in LTM is encoded semantically (by meaning)

• Capacity - vast, potentially unlimited

• Duration - potentially permanent (some information can be lost over time)

Explicit memory - type of LTM

• consciously retrieved

• Semantic memory - facts and academic

  knowledge

• Episodic memory - personally experienced events

  • stored in neocortex via the cerebral cortex

Implicit memory - type of LTM

• not consciously retrieved

• Procedural memory - skills and tasks learnt through experience

• classically conditioned memory - classically conditioned responses.

  • stored in cerebellum

explanatory power of Atkinson- Shriffren model of memory

• Strengths

  • model has different stores, with different capacities and durations

  • Provides understanding of structure and process of memory

  • memory studies support this model of memory

• Limitations

  • may be oversimplified, specifically short term memory and how this info is transferred to long term

  • ignores factors such as motivation and strategy

  • not account for individual differences

Brain structures involved in explicit memories

• Hippocampus - found in centre of brain, encodes explicit memories and consolidates them for long term storage, within 20-30 min

• Amygdala - located in middle of brain, encodes the emotional aspects of memories (classical conditioning fear etc and explicit memories), strengthening memories encoded by Hippocampus

• Neocortex - apart of cerebral cortex, storing explicit memories

Brain structures involved in implicit memory

• Basal Ganglia - located in middle of the brain, encoding and storing implicit memories. Associated with formation of habits and motor memory

• Cerebellum - found at base of the brain, encodes and stores implicit, procedural memories. Vital for the learning and execution of motor skills

Retrieving autobiographical events

• Hippocampus - involved in retrieving semantic memories

• Frontal and Temporal lobes - involved in retrieving episodic memories

  • All these brain structures are activated when recalling past memories (autobiographical events)

Possible future events

• when imagining, the same brain regions (hippocampus, frontal and temporal lobes) are activated as when recalling past/autobiographical events.

• due to the need to draw on past episodic and semantic memories to form a possible image of the future

Alzeihmers disease and observable symptoms

• a neurodegenerative disease, characterised by progressive loss of brain matter,

• decrease in cognitive function

• personality change

• difficulty with communication

• frequent confusion/ disorientation

Brain lesions characterising Alzheimers

• Alzheimers can only be diagnosed through post mortem examination and is characterised by neurological lesions:

• Amyloid plaques - protein (beta-amyloid) that forms clumps, blocking neural transmission.

• Neurofibrillary tangles - accumulation of protein ‘tau’, forming insoluble tangles inside neurons

Aphantasia

• Phenomenon when a person cannot form mental images, impacting ability to recall autobiographical events and imagine possible future events

• Episodic memories - recalled lack vivid details

  • struggle to draw on a past memories, impacting their ability to imagine possible future events