Cognition

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge.

Brain

Central organ responsible for cognition, composed of different structures with specialized functions.

Cerebrum

Largest part of the brain responsible for touch, vision, reasoning, emotions, speech, and learning.

Cerebellum

Brain structure that coordinates movement and maintains posture and balance.

Brainstem

Connects brain to spinal cord; controls automatic functions like heartbeat, breathing, and digestion.

Broca’s Area

Part of the brain involved in speech production and vocal control.

Broca’s Aphasia

Non-fluent aphasia; difficulty forming sentences, slow speech, struggles with grammar and writing.

Wernicke’s Area

Brain region responsible for language comprehension.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Fluent aphasia; speech is fluent but lacks meaning, and comprehension is impaired.

Mental Image

A mental picture or representation created in the mind; helps with memory and problem-solving.

Concept

Mental categories for organizing information based on shared features or properties.

Logical Concept

Concept with clearly defined rules for membership (e.g., triangles).

Natural Concept

Concept with fuzzy or unclear rules (e.g., birds).

Prototype

Mental best-example or average representation of a category or concept.

Thinking

Mental manipulation of information through reasoning, problem-solving, idea formation, and decision-making.

Convergent Thinking

Selecting the single best solution from multiple choices.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many different ideas or solutions from one starting point.

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and useful ideas by combining elements in meaningful ways.

Fluency

Generating many possible solutions to a problem.

Flexibility

Shifting between different strategies to solve problems.

Originality

Finding unique or novel solutions that differ from common ones.

Critical Thinking

Ability to think logically, reflectively, and independently; involves evaluating arguments and solving problems.

Intelligence

The ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt to new situations effectively.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to solve new problems and think logically in novel situations.

Crystallised Intelligence

Knowledge gained from experience, education, and culture.

Componential Intelligence

Analytical ability; thinking abstractly and processing information efficiently.

Experiential Intelligence

Creative ability; generating new ideas and insights.

Contextual Intelligence

Practical intelligence; adapting to environment and applying knowledge effectively.

Adaptative Intelligence

Capacity to adjust behavior to meet environmental demands; shaped by biology and culture.

Problem-Solving

Process of using strategies to find solutions to challenges or tasks.

Trial-and-Error

Trying different approaches until one works; inefficient but often used in early learning.

Algorithm

Step-by-step method to guarantee a correct solution (e.g., math formula).

Heuristic

Shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that simplify decision-making but can lead to errors.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fear of flying after seeing crash on news).

Representative Heuristic

Making judgments based on similarity to a prototype or stereotype.

Affect Heuristic

Making decisions based on emotions rather than logic or evidence.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see a new use for an object due to fixation on traditional function.

Confirmation Bias

Only seeking information that confirms existing beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence.

Mental Set

Tendency to rely on familiar strategies that worked in the past, even if ineffective now.

Memory

The ability to encode, store, and retrieve information.

Encoding

The process of converting sensory input into a form the brain can store and use.

Storage

Maintaining encoded information over time in sensory, short-term, or long-term memory.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information for use; also called remembering.

Structural Encoding

Encoding based on what words look like.

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding based on how words sound.

Semantic Encoding

Encoding based on the meaning of words or information.

Visual Encoding

Storing images based on appearance.

Acoustic Encoding

Storing sounds or how something is heard.

Sensory Memory

Briefly stores raw sensory input from the environment (sight, sound, touch).

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory that lasts about half a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory that can last a few seconds.

Haptic Memory

Tactile memory associated with the sense of touch.

Short-Term Memory

Temporarily holds limited information (7±2 items) for about 20–30 seconds.

Working Memory

Active version of short-term memory used during reasoning, learning, and comprehension.

Long-Term Memory

Stores information indefinitely with potentially unlimited capacity.

Schema

Mental framework that organizes knowledge and affects memory encoding and retrieval.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of facts and events (e.g., names, dates); also called declarative memory.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious recall of skills and procedures (e.g., riding a bike, using a fork).

Semantic Memory

Part of memory for symbols, general knowledge, concepts, and language rules.

Episodic Memory

Part of explicit memory for personal experiences or events.

Procedural Memory

Part of implicit memory involving motor skills and habitual actions.

Recall

Retrieving information without external cues (e.g., writing an essay).

Recognition

Identifying correct information from a list (e.g., multiple-choice questions).

Relearning

Quicker re-acquisition of previously learned but forgotten information.

Factors of Forgetting (List)

Encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, proactive interference, retroactive interference, tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia, cue-dependent forgetting, memory decay, source confusion, aging factor, encoding specificity (all are Forgetting Factors).

Memory Improvement Strategies (List)

Rehearsal, chunking, mnemonic devices, visualization, elaborative rehearsal, spaced repetition, sleep and rest, making associations, context-dependent memory, state-dependent memory, encoding specificity, exercise your mind, use of specific coding strategy (all are Memory Improvement Strategies).

Encoding Failure (Forgetting Factor)

Occurs when information is never properly stored in memory in the first place.

Storage Decay (Forgetting Factor)

Memory traces fade over time, especially when not used or reinforced.

Retrieval Failure (Forgetting Factor)

Stored information is there, but we can’t access it due to poor retrieval cues.

Proactive Interference (Forgetting Factor)

Old information interferes with learning or recalling new information.

Retroactive Interference (Forgetting Factor)

New information interferes with recalling previously learned information.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon (Forgetting Factor)

Temporary inability to recall a known word, even though you feel it's right there.

Retrograde Amnesia (Forgetting Factor)

Loss of memories from before an injury or trauma.

Anterograde Amnesia (Forgetting Factor)

Inability to form new memories after an injury or trauma.

Cue-Dependent Forgetting (Forgetting Factor)

Failure to recall because retrieval cues don’t match those present during learning.

Memory Decay (Forgetting Factor)

Gradual weakening or disappearance of memory due to disuse or passage of time.

Source Confusion (Forgetting Factor)

Confusing the origin of a memory or mixing up details from different sources.

Aging Factor (Forgetting Factor)

Older adults often forget names and new information more easily due to age-related decline.

Encoding Specificity (Forgetting Factor)

Recall fails if the context or mood during retrieval doesn’t match the context of encoding.

Rehearsal (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Consciously repeating information to increase the chance of long-term storage.

Chunking (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Group related items into meaningful units to expand short-term memory capacity.

Mnemonic Devices (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Use acronyms, rhymes, or systems to help encode and retrieve information.

Visualization (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Creating vivid mental images to make information more memorable.

Elaborative Rehearsal (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Linking new information with existing knowledge to enhance long-term memory.

Spaced Repetition (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Studying material over spaced intervals to strengthen memory consolidation.

Sleep and Rest (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Quality sleep supports memory consolidation and learning.

Make Associations (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Connecting new information to things you already know or relate to.

Context-Dependent Memory (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Information is recalled better in the same environment it was learned.

State-Dependent Memory (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Information is recalled better when you're in the same mood or state as when you learned it.

Encoding Specificity (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Recall improves when the retrieval conditions match the conditions during encoding.

Exercise Your Mind (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Engaging in activities like reading or puzzles boosts brain function and memory.

Use of Specific Coding Strategy (Memory Improvement Strategy)

Applying labels, color codes, or organized formats to structure and memorize information better.