AP Psych Final

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

top-down processing

using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information

bottom-up processing

analyzing sensory information starting with the basic features

schemas

mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information

perceptual sets

a mental readiness to perceive something in a certain way

gestalt psychology

the idea that we perceive whole patterns, not just separate parts

closure

filling in gaps to see a whole, complete object

figure/ground

perceiving objects (figure) as separate from their background (ground)

proximity

grouping nearby objects together

similarity

grouping similar-looking items together

selective attention

focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others

cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on one voice while filtering out others

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

inattention (inattentional blindness)

failing to see something because attention is elsewhere

binocular depth cues

depth cues that require two eyes

retinal disparity

the slight differences between images in each eye that help judge depth

convergence

the inward turning of the eyes that signals how close an object is

monocular depth cues

depth cues that require only one eye

relative clarity

distant objects appear hazier than close objects

relative size

smaller images on the retina are perceived as farther away

texture gradient

textures become finer and less detailed with distance

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

interposition

when one object blocks another, the blocked object is seen as farther away

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in lighting or angle

apparent motion/movement

perceiving motion when none actually exists

sensation

the process of detecting physical energy from the environment

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions

visual cliff

a test of depth perception in infants and animals

illusions

misleading perceptions caused by distorted sensory information

relative motion

objects closer seem to move faster than distant objects

relative height

objects higher in our visual field appear farther away

insight

a sudden realization of a solution

mental set

the tendency to approach problems in the same way

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

functional fixedness

seeing objects only in terms of their usual functions

convergent thinking

narrowing down options to find a single correct answer

divergent thinking

generating many possible solutions or ideas

priming

activating associations in memory without conscious awareness

framing

the way information is presented, which affects decisions and judgments

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

stroboscopic movement

the illusion of motion created when a series of slightly different images is shown in rapid succession.

phi phenomenon

the illusion of movement that occurs when lights blink on and off in quick sequence.

autokinetic effect

a visual illusion where a stationary point of light in a dark room appears to move.

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even when lighting changes.

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, like a shifted visual field.

cognition

all the mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

meta-cognition

thinking about your own thinking.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

prototype

the best or most typical example of a concept.

assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

accommodation

adapting existing schemas to incorporate new information.

gambler’s fallacy

the mistaken belief that past random events affect future random outcomes.

executive functions

higher-level cognitive processes such as planning, decision-making, and self-control.

sunk-cost fallacy

continuing a behavior or project because of previously invested resources rather than current value.

motion parallax

a depth cue where closer objects appear to move faster than distant ones as you move.

Consciousness

awareness of yourself and your environment

Circadian rhythm

the 24-hour biological clock controlling sleep, temperature, and hormones.

Types of consciousness

different states of awareness (wakefulness, sleep, dreaming, altered states).

Disruptions to circadian rhythm

changes that throw off the body clock (jet lag, night shifts)

Sleep

periodic natural loss of consciousness.

Sleep stages

the cycle of NREM and REM sleep repeated through the night.

NREM stages 1–3

light sleep → deeper sleep → deepest slow-wave sleep.

Hypnagogic sensations

brief dreamlike experiences as you fall asleep.

REM sleep

rapid-eye-movement sleep where vivid dreaming occurs.

Dreaming

mental activity and imagery during sleep.

REM rebound

increased REM sleep after REM deprivation

Activation-synthesis dream theory

dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Consolidation dream theory

dreams help store and strengthen memories.

Sleep function

sleep restores the body, supports learning, and maintains health.

Sleep disruption effects

decreased focus, irritability, memory problems, weakened immune system.

Sleep disorders

problems with sleep quality or timing.

Insomnia

trouble falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

sudden sleep attacks during wakefulness.

REM sleep behavior disorder

acting out dreams due to lack of muscle paralysis.

Sleep apnea

breathing repeatedly stops during sleep.

Somnambulism

sleepwalking during NREM sleep.

Night terrors

intense fear episodes during deep NREM sleep.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

brain structure controlling circadian rhythm.

Alpha waves

slow brain waves during relaxed wakefulness.

Perception

interpreting sensory information.

Transduction

converting sensory energy into neural signals.

Threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect something.

Just noticeable difference

the smallest detectable change in a stimulus.

Sensory adaptation

reduced sensitivity after constant stimulation.

Weber’s law

the JND depends on a constant proportion, not an amount.

Sensory interaction

senses influencing each other (like taste + smell).

Synesthesia

when stimulation of one sense triggers another.

Vision

sense that detects light.

Cornea

clear outer layer that bends light.

Pupil

opening that lets light in.

Iris

muscle that controls pupil size.

Lens

structure that focuses light onto the retina.

Retina

light-sensitive inner surface of the eye.

Blind spot

area with no receptors where optic nerve leaves the eye.

Incomplete retinal images

images on the retina are partial, requiring the brain to fill gaps.

Nearsightedness

distant objects appear blurry.

Farsightedness

close objects appear blurry.

Rods

receptors for low-light vision.

Cones

receptors for color and detail.