the american city final terms

District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 (be able to explain in a few sentences. Why does the constitution call for a separate ‘federal district’ not in a state? Why was the selection of a site of national capital controversial? Why was the current site selected?)

• Organized D.C. as a federal territory under Congress; extended U.S. laws to the district.

• So no single state could control the national government (b/c d.c. wasnt in maryland or virginia)

• Northern and southern states disagreed and wanted it closer to them; debates over politics, trade, and land.

• selected because it was a compromise between North and South; Potomac River location offered trade, defense, and political balance.

Alexandria retrocession of 1846 – what was it and why did it happen?

• alexandria was originally a part of virginia's ceeded land to d.c. and it got moved back to virginia

• felt that the growing northern abolitionist presence was growing along with the compromise of 1850 (banned slave trade it dc)

• economic conditions were better for alexandria’s interests (slavery) back in virginia

Alexander Robey “Boss” Shepherd

• controversial governor in the early 70s

• modernizes DC (roads, sewers, streetlights,)

• but criticized criticized for heavy-handed tactics like cronyism (favoring friends or associates for jobs or benefits, regardless of merit) and overspending

1880s-1950s: Era of Direct Congressional Rule. How was DC governed during this period?

• both the senate and the house had a “committee on district of columbia” but they were generally lowly regarded

• house committee was controlled by segregationist southern politicians

• dc was run by three appointed commissioners so congress had complete control over the city

• in the 20th century, dc began pushing for home rule

How did three 20th century historical transformations spark a “home rule movement” in DC? (hint: 1) women’s suffrage mv’t; 2) New Deal; 3) Civil Rights Movement)

• the women’s suffrage movement inspired women in dc to fight for their suffrage

• the new deal leads to a massive growth in federal workers and dc becomes a major city

• dc had a mostly black population which fueled civil rights activism and demands for local self-government

1974 Home Rule Act

• gave dc residents the ability to elect their own mayor and city council

• allowed for more local self-governance while congress still had ultimate authority

• marked a major step toward dc having home rule after decades of direct congressional control

Bird’s eye view vs the perspective of the flâneur (discussed this in context of Jane Jacobs vs. ‘master planners’)

• planners use a “bird’s‑eye view” to look at a city from above and try to organize it on a big scale, often ignoring what life is like on the streets

• the “flâneur” perspective values walking the city at street level, noticing everyday life, mixed uses, and the messy complexity of real human activity

• Jane Jacobs argued that city planning should follow the flâneur’s view

Earlier history of U.S. planning

a) Pre-Columbian -- Indigenous urban design

b) Pre-1776 Colonial town planning

c) Post-independence U.S.

a)

• indigenous peoples built organized settlements before european contact

• mesoamerican cities like tenochtitlan had plazas, temples, and streets laid out for social, religious, and political order

• design reflected community needs, climate, and materials rather than just economics

• shows sophisticated urban planning existed in north america before europeans

1893 World’s Columbian Exposition – specifically its influence on urban planning

• daniel burnham designed the “white city” for the exposition

• showcased grand neoclassical architecture, wide boulevards, and coordinated landscaping

• inspired the city beautiful movement and future urban planning in the us

City Beautiful Movement

new gen. of urban reformers said that cities need civic identity and harmony + beauty (“US cities can be as magnificent as Europe!”)

Beaux Arts architecture

• neoclassical architecture style

• grand and palatial

• often used for public buildings, monuments, and city planning projects

• emphasizes symmetry, ornamentation, and formal design

Daniel Burnham’s Plan for Chicago (1909)

• 1909 plan for chicago that proposed boulevards parks and monumental civic spaces

• only partially built but hugely influential on u.s. urban planning

• criticized by modernists for looking backward to europe and ancient rome

• criticized by progressives for focusing on aesthetics instead of housing and social reform

L’Enfant Plan (1791)

• planned design for washington dc meant to represent national power and democracy

• wide diagonal avenues laid over a grid creating grand views and monuments

• inspired by european city planning

McMillan Plan (1901)

• designed by city beautiful movement architects, including daniel burnham

• aimed to restore the original l’enfant plan for dc

• cleared out clutter and created open, grand avenues

• emphasized majestic open green spaces, harmony, and palatial neoclassical architecture

Ebenezer Howard – “Garden Cities of Tomorrow” (1902)

• howard lives in london, not a professional architect

• he was active with middle class reform groups who wanted to fix industrial cities’ problems and rural poverty

• proposed self-contained communities surrounded by greenbelts

• combined the best of city (jobs, culture) and countryside (fresh air, greenery)

• influenced later “new town” movements in the 20th century (e.g., greenbelt, md)

Edward Bellamy’s “Looking Backward”

• utopian socialist novel

• protagonist wakes up in future with state-run health care, state-run kitchens, and no poverty

• imagined a highly organized, cooperative society to solve social problems

Henry George’s “Progress and Poverty”

• proposed a single tax on land as a radical idea

• simpler and more practical than other economic reforms

• ethical: argued no one should profit from land because the earth belongs to everyone

• aimed to reduce inequality

“Third Magnet”

• middle-ground between overcrowded city and isolated rural

• aimed to combine the benefits of urban life with the benefits of the countryside

Describe Howard’s proposed features of a “garden city”

• ring of housing that is a walkable distance from factories, schools, and shops

• mixed-housing

• affordable

• sustainable

• green

Greenbelt, MD

• the great depression into the new deal led to an era of experimentation

• the government creates an experimental cooperative town outside DC

• the program was dismantled during mccarthy era –> labeled “too communist”

1960s “New Town Movement”

• idealistic developers build experimental towns outside cities

• federal funding in the 1970s

Telosa

• proposed futuristic city in the desert by billionaire marc lore

• designed to be sustainable, high-tech, and equitable

• inspired by ebenezer howard’s garden city ideas

• aims for green energy, walkable neighborhoods, and shared public spaces

• mentioned in class to illustrate modern experiments in planned cities

Why did modernists take inspiration from Chicago’s early skyscrapers?

• early chicago skyscrapers showed that buildings could be tall, functional, and use new materials like steel

• they rejected unnecessary ornamentation, focusing on structure and purpose

• modernists saw chicago’s skyscrapers as a model for a new style instead of copying europe or classical designs

Louis Sullivan – “Form follows function”

• louis sullivan’s idea “form follows function” gave modernists a philosophy: architecture should reflect its use honestly

• true, honest architecture has no silly frills – it embodies its pure function

Bauhaus

• part of european arrivals to the us in the 1940s-1960s after fleeing the nazis

• brought modernist architectural ideas (minimalist, functional design, beauty of machines)

Mies van der Rohe – “Less is More”

• motto of modernist architect mies van der rohe

• emphasizes minimalist design with no unnecessary decoration

• buildings should focus on function, simplicity, and clarity

• influenced the international style with clean lines, glass, and steel

“International Style” of architecture

• modernist architecture style that peaked in mid-20th century

• minimalist, boxy buildings with lots of glass and steel

• emphasizes function over ornamentation

• influenced by european bauhaus architects and early chicago skyscrapers

Le Corbusier

• french-speaking swiss architect, nicknamed “corbu”

• raised by a family of watchmakers

• celebrated the liberating possibilities of skyscrapers

• believed buildings should be “machines for living”

• designed utopian projects like the radiant city (1930) with “tower in the park” concept

“Tower in the park”

• urban design idea by le corbusier

• tall residential towers surrounded by open green space

• aimed to provide light, air, and recreation for residents

• emphasizes separation of buildings from streets and dense urban fabric

Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM)

• founded in 1928 to promote modernist architecture and urban planning

• issued the athens charter in 1933, outlining principles for functional, rational cities

• dominated urban planning after wwii, influencing urban renewal globally

• applied ideas in the global south like brazil. india, and bangladesh

The “International Style”

• modernist architecture style that emerged in the 1920s–1930s

• emphasizes minimalism, functional design, and lack of ornamentation

• often uses steel, glass, and concrete

• buildings are usually boxy, geometric, and clean-lined

• influenced by bauhaus architects and early chicago skyscrapers

Global influence of the ‘international style’ Be able to describe one example:
a) Brasília
b) Brazil / Chandigahr
c) India / National Parliament Building
d) Bangladesh

a) india/national parliament building

• designed by le corbusier in the 1950s

• uses international style: clean lines, geometric shapes, open spaces

• planned city layout with functional zoning for government, residential, and commercial areas

• shows how modernist ideas were applied in a non-western context

Principles of mid 20th century urban planning vs principles of Jane Jacobs

• superblocks vs short street blocks: planners used superblocks to separate cars from people, creating big areas where pedestrians and traffic were divided; jacobs said short blocks keep streets lively, safe, and full of human activity

• single-use zoning vs mixed uses: planners separated homes, offices, and factories into different areas; jacobs argued mixing uses creates vibrant neighborhoods where people live, work, shop, and interact, supporting local businesses and community life

“street ballet”

• concept from jane jacobs

• describes the dynamic interactions of people on city streets

• includes all the activities that make streets lively

• shows how vibrant street life creates safer, more engaging neighborhoods

Critiques of Jane Jacobs (be able to describe one)

says that she is too focused on nyc, what about other cities like la?

Los Angeles school – what did they critique about the Chicago School?

• argued chicago school was outdated and no longer represented modern american cities

• said los angeles, once dismissed as odd, sprawling, and “not a real city,” is actually the true archetype of a postmodern american city

• la school emphasized sprawling, decentralized, and diverse urban forms as more representative of contemporary life

Reyner Banham – The Architecture of Four Ecologies (1971)

• early inspo for la school

• banham is the “jane jacobs of la”

• lists four zones: the foothills (mainly suburbs at the base of mountains), “surfurbia” (beach communities:), “plains of id” (the valleys), “autotopia” (the freeways

“City as theme park” – be able to describe three types named by Osman

a) cities that have grown around theme parks

• e.g., orlando around disneyworld

b) theme parks that are themselves cities

• e.g., epcot

c) cities that have metaphorically transformed themselves into theme parks

• e.g., las vegas strip

EPCOT

• theme park within disneyworld designed to function like a self-contained city

• emphasizes planning and immersive, themed environments and influenced urban planning ideas

Celebration, USA

• planned town built by the Walt Disney Company in the 1990s

• designed to look like an idealized small American town

• everything is curated

• meant to show how a “themed,” controlled environment could shape real everyday life

Jean Baudrillard’s “simulacra”

• simulacra = when fake versions of reality replace the real thing

• cities are known more for their marketed images and experiences than for the everyday reality of people who live there

City as simulacra – what does this mean?

• cities shift from real economic production to selling a brand or vibe

• post-industrial cities were broke in the 70s so they rebranded around tourism, entertainment, and culture

• themed districts appear in the 90s to market an image like chinatown or “historic” neighborhoods

Postmodern architecture – what is it?

• modernists believed “less is more,” favoring sleek, minimalist buildings

• jane jacobs argued in the 70s for more street life and historic elements in cities

• postmodernists resopnded with “less is bore,” embracing playful, retro design

• critics worry cities now feel like images or brands rather than lived places

“Less is bore!”

• postmodern architecture slogan

• reaction against modernist “less is more” minimalism

• celebrates quirky, playful, and decorative design

• embraces historical references, retro styles, and bold colors

City as privatopia – what did the L.A. School mean by this?

• cities becoming mostly private spaces instead of true public spaces

• public areas controlled by businesses, developers, or wealthy residents

• limits on who can use space and what activities are allowed

The debate over POPS – “Privately owned Public Spaces”

• people pro POPS say that a park is a park and any public space is good

• people anti POPS say that private developers can decide what activities and people are allowed (say that the issues are: homeless often excluded, protests usually restricted)

Jeremy Bentham’s panopticon

• 1700s prison design

• prisoners can’t see if they’re being watched

• idea: constant possibility of surveillance makes them behave

• eventually a guard in the tower isn’t even needed

Michel Foucault’s panopticon

• (1970s) argued society is becoming a giant panopticon

• constant invisible watching shapes behavior

• influenced 1990s surveillance studies

• debates: is social media a giant panopticon or a place people can resist surveillance?

“surveillance capitalism”

• economy built on collecting and analyzing personal data

• companies track behavior online and offline to predict and influence actions

• profits come from using surveillance to sell products, services, or influence choices

a) Surveillance vs b) “sous-veillance” vs c) “co-veillance”

a)

• the police monitors citizens

b)

• citizens use cameras to monitor police

c)

• citizens monitor and film each other

The “fortress city” – what did the L.A. School mean by this?

• panopticon = city as a prison

• militarization of urban space: obsession with fear and heavy policing

• carceral state: cities and economies increasingly depend on prisons

Hostile Architecture

• design that discourages use by homeless or other “undesirables”

• examples: “bum-proof” benches, the mosquito

• aims to control behavior in public spaces and keep certain people out

 “bum-proof” benches

• term by mike davis

• benches designed to prevent homeless people from sleeping on them

• example of hostile architecture controlling who can use public space

The Mosquito

• device that emits a high-pitched sound only young people or sensitive ears can hear

• used to discourage loitering in public spaces

• example of hostile architecture targeting certain groups without physically harming them

The debate about “Fortress Washington”

• debate after Oklahoma City Bombing in 1995 and 9/11 

• wondering how to have the national mall balance democratic public space and security (general debate about public spaces)

• ex. jersey barriers (concrete barriers to stop cars from running into buildings), bollards (short sturdy posts to block cars but allow pedestrians through), ha-ha walls, hidden cameras

Ha-ha wall

• sunken or recessed walls that act as barriers without blocking views

• used to control access or separate spaces subtly

• example of security design in cities like washington, dc to protect public buildings while keeping the area visually open (fortress washington debate)

‘megalopolis’

• term coined by french geographer jean gottman in early 1960s

• describes a huge, continuous urban region made up of multiple cities

• example: boston to washington, dc corridor

• shows how cities can grow and merge into one giant metropolitan area

Sprawl – what are specific characteristics?

• “low diversity” - massive, single-use areas

• “poor connectivity” (leapfrog development) - new neighborhoods or buildings jump over existing areas, creating poorly linked communities (relatively unused land inbetween)

arguments against the harms caused by sprawl

• environmental costs

• psychological effects: lack of mental health benefits from walking, elderly and the poor can’t access cars, death from car accidents

• aesthetics: critics say that sprawl is ugly and makes for horrible places to live

arguments made to defend sprawl

• we need sprawl because of housing shortages

• people CHOOSE to live in the exurbs b/c it offers 3 things

  • choice: houses are more affordable far away

  • mobility: cars give autonomy and freedom of movement

  • privacy: people don’t want to live communities with a lack of privacy

Examples of “smart growth” policies to control sprawl. (At least two)

• portland, oregon

  • uses a growth boundary to limit urban sprawl and protect surrounding land

  • concentrates development inside the boundary

  • pro-sprawl critics say it makes housing too expensive and argue the city should expand outward

• montgomery county, maryland

  • 1964 “wedges and corridors” plan: concentrates new development along transportation corridors while leaving wedge-shaped areas of open space and farmland to prevent unchecked sprawl

  • thrive2050 debate: how to manage future growth, increase housing, and still preserve open space and farmland

“Aerotropolis”

• a term created by joel garreau in the 1990s

• a type of edge city centered around airports

“Galactic metropolis”

• type of edge city with multiple “stars” or hubs, each with its own jobs and attractions, forming a decentralized network instead of one central downtown

Joel Garreau’s characteristics of “edge cities”

• more jobs than bedrooms: more people work there than live there

• perceived by population as one coherent place, even if it’s spread out across multiple developments

Uptowns

• one of 3 types of edge cities

• edge cities built on older rural towns, reusing existing small towns

Greenfields

• one of 3 types of edge cities

• master-planned communities built on undeveloped land

Boomers

• one of 3 types of edge cities

• spontaneous, unplanned edge cities, often forming at intersections of new highways

Office park architecture (Osman listed three types. Be able to describe one)

• corporate campus

  • emerged in 1950s as a style of office park

  • modeled after a university campus with multiple buildings and open spaces

  • emphasizes aesthetics, green space, and a cohesive layout

“Shadow governments” (in the context of edge cities)

• edge cities are big but have no elected government

• instead, condo associations, business groups, and private security run things like a “mayor” would

Fairfax County’s “Tysons Comprehensive Plan” – do you think it is a good idea? Why or why not?

• make tysons dense, walkable, transit-oriented, with green spaces and mixed uses

• yes, good idea

  • encourages walking and transit use

  • creates a real downtown feel with shops, offices, and housing together

  • reduces sprawl by focusing growth in one area

  • adds parks and public spaces for community life

“Narrow” (or “strict”) definition of gentrification

• gradual, small-scale rehabbing of old buildings

• mostly private effort, little government help

• different from urban renewal (no bulldozers or gov $$)

• occurs in 3 stages:

  • pioneer stage, consolidating stage, speculative stage

• debate: whether displacement (direct vs indirect) is required for gentrification

“direct” vs “indirect” displacement

• direct displacement = eviction or harassment from landlord, people forced to leave

• indirect displacement = subtle exclusion, can’t afford to stay or participate

  • examples: cultural displacement, political displacement, exclusionary displacement

Stage theory of gentrification (what are the three stages)

1. pioneer stage: first arrivals, countercultural, low income, cheap rents

2. consolidating stage: creative class/professionals move in, strengthen neighborhood identity

3. speculative stage: high-income residents and developers arrive, prices rise, poor residents pressured or displaced

“Broad” definition of gentrification (why advocates critique the strict definition)

• not just small-scale renovations

• includes developers, investors, and government policies

• change is often led by developers not artists

• happens worldwide (“planetary gentrification”) and broadly means remaking places for wealthier users

Rural gentrification

• wealthy people buy homes in rural areas for vacation or luxury use

• examples: hollywood stars in montana, farmhouses in vermont, ski lodges in west virginia

• often changes local culture and drives up property prices for long-time residents

Tourism gentrification (example from lecture)

• working-class residents pushed out by hotels, short-term rentals, and tourist-focused businesses

• examples: venice, italy; neighborhoods affected by airbnb rentals

• often makes areas more expensive and tailored to visitors rather than locals

Industrial gentrification

• old industrial buildings like factories or warehouses are converted into luxury apartments or lofts

• example: nyc’s soho

• transforms formerly working-class or production areas into upscale residential spaces

Super-gentrification (or “financification”)

• stage of gentrification driven by global investment firms storing money in real estate

• skyrocketing home prices can displace even very wealthy residents

• example: “zombie urbanism” in manhattan – empty luxury apartments and storefronts, creating an “undead” feel

“zombie urbanism”

• example of super-gentrification

• luxury apartments and storefronts stay empty because prices are too high or they’re owned by shell companies (businesses that exist on paper, often used to hold property anonymously)

• creates a ghostly, “undead” feel in neighborhoods

• example: manhattan, nyc

Gentrification by marginalized groups (one example)

• gay gentrification

  • gentrification led by LGBTQ+ residents moving into historically working-class or declining neighborhoods

  • example: the castro in san francisco

  • brings cultural vibrancy and new businesses but can raise rents and displace long-time residents

Demographic reasons for gentrification

• baby boomers (born 1946–1964) in 1970s tended to marry older, have fewer children, and had higher divorce rates

• rise of DINKS (double income, no kids)

• singles and childless couples find suburbia less attractive, so they move into city neighborhoods, helping gentrification

DINKS

• “double income no kids”

• couples with two incomes and no children

• more disposable income, can afford city living

• often move into urban neighborhoods, driving demand and contributing to gentrification

• attracted to culture, nightlife, and amenities rather than suburban family life

Economic reasons for gentrification

• decline of manufacturing and rise of service economy

• more white-collar workers seeking apartments close to downtown offices

• increases demand for city living, raising gentrification

Cultural reasons for gentrification

• changing tastes of middle-class americans, seeking “authenticity” and anti-suburban lifestyles

• historic architecture, hip/“cool” vibes, diverse restaurants, organic markets attract newcomers

• 1960s counterculture influenced search for unique urban experiences

• in 2025, “authenticity” and “coolness” often marketed by cities to attract millennials

The gentrification aesthetic as “revanchist” vs “emancipatory”

• revanchist

  • gentrifiers seen as reactionary, using language like “reconquest” or “revenge”

  • core belief: “the city is ours,” reclaiming it from minorities and poor residents

  • reflects colonial and frontier mindset: pioneers vs “hostile natives”

  • results in evictions, police crackdowns, and “clean-up” campaigns

• emancipatory

  • gentrifiers are politically progressive and support diversity

  • center city offers liberation for single women, LGBTQ+, artists, and alternative politics

  • often back affordable housing, environmentalism, and inclusive policies

  • gentrifying areas tend to be more open to difference than other parts of the city

Pros of gentrification (two)

• reduction of sprawl

• repopulation of underpopulated areas

Cons of gentrification (two)

• direct or indirect displacement of poor

• loss of cultural landmarks and historic communities

1882 Chinese Exclusion Act

• first major law restricting immigration to the us based on nationality

• banned chinese laborers from entering the country

• reflected widespread nativism and anti-asian sentiment

• set a precedent for later restrictive immigration laws

1907 Gentlemen’s Agreement

• informal deal between the us and japan to limit japanese immigration

• japan agreed to stop sending laborers to the us

• us agreed not to impose formal immigration laws or segregate japanese already living in the country

• reflected nativism and rising anti-asian sentiment

Dillingham Commission

• created by congress to study the “immigrant problem” as european immigration increased

• used statistics and fieldwork but also racist pseudo-science like eugenics (the belief that society should be improved by controlling who can reproduce)

• concluded southern and eastern europeans were less desirable, justifying immigration restrictions

1924 National Origins Act

• strict immigration law creating quotas based on us population in 1890

• favored northern and western europeans (83% of new visas)

• limited southern and eastern europeans (15%) and others (2%)

• no restrictions on western hemisphere immigrants

• led to formation of a formal us-mexico border patrol

1965 Hart Celler Act

• abolished 1924 national origins quotas and treated all countries equally

• new criteria: about 60% of visas for family reunification, about 30% for skilled workers based on labor demand

• first cap on western hemisphere countries led to rise of undocumented immigration as a political issue

a) 1880-1920 immigrants (ellis island immigrants) vs b) post-1965 immigrants (dulles airport immigrants)

a)

• mostly eastern and southern europe

• immigrant ghettoes/enclaves in inner city

• mostly male, high rates of “return migration” (immigrants move to a new country temporarily and then go back to their home country)

b)

• mostly latin america, asia, and africa

• some older enclaves exist, but more immigrants moved directly to the subrubs (“ethnoburbs”)

• mostly families, more stable and likely to stay in the us

Hispanic vs Latino

• hispanic: emphasizes spanish language and connection to spain, created by us government in 1970s for stats

• latino: emphasizes latin american roots, gained popularity in 1990s

• today often used interchangeably

• ongoing debate over latino vs latinX (latine) for gender-inclusive language

Latino vs Latinx debate

• latino: traditional term for people from latin america, gendered (male/female)

• latinx (or latine): gender-neutral, inclusive term for all genders

• debate exists over usage, with some embracing it and others preferring latino/latina

Pros of Latino/Hispanic term (two)

• using labels like “hispanic” or “latino” helps the government track issues like inequality and provide support where needed

• grouping latinos together politically gives them more influence and representation

Cons of Latino/Hispanic term (two)

• latin america is extremely diverse, and some people prefer to identify by their specific country or region rather than a broad “latino” label

• some latino/hispanic groups (like guatemalan or dominican americans) are overshadowed by the bigger groups (mexican, puerto rican, cuban)

Unique Latino cityscapes: Miami vs NYC vs LA vs border cities vs Washington D.C.

• cuban miami: 55% cuban-american, 1960s refugees wealthier & conservative, post-1980 working-class, economic gateway to latin america & spanish-language media hub

• caribbean nyc: puerto ricans (~30%) & dominicans (~25%), “nuyorican” movement, fusion of spanish caribbean, west indian, african-american culture (south bronx hip-hop)

• mexican-american la: ~75% of latinos, 1970s chicano movement, so cal as historic mexico-us borderlands

• binational cities: split by us/mexico border (ex: el paso/ciudad juarez), nafta boosted border cities, hybrid texas/tejano culture

• washington dc: unique due to embassies/imf/world bank & 1980s el salvadoran refugees