A + P Exam 1

Central Nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Carries information between body and CNS (43 pairs of nerves in the body)

2 branches of PNS

Efferent and sensory

Efferent branches of PNS

Somatic motor and autonomic motor

Somatic motor

Motor info to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands (involuntary)

Autonomic motor

Motor info to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands (involuntary)

Sensory branches of PNS

Visceral (organs) sensory and somatic (body) sensory

Visceral (organs) sensory

Sensory information from organs

Somatic (body) sensory

Sensory information from the skin, muscles, bones, and joints

Myelination in somatic N.S

A lot

Myelination in autonomic N.S

Pre ganglionic: little Post ganglionic: none

Neurotransmitter released in somatic N.S

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter released in autonomic N.S

Acetylcholine OR norepinephrine

Sympathetic nervous system

The stress response, nerves from T1 - L2

SNS function

Fight or flight response (optimizes body conditions for dealing with stress)

SNS nerve divergence

1 post ganglionic fiber that can travel to several different organs (1 impulse can have a very widespread on the body)

SNS nerve distribution

All over the body. Viscera - to internal organs. S muscle, C muscle and glands in the head - eyes and salivary glands. S muscle glands in skin - hairs erect, sweat glands. Circular s muscle in vessels - regulation of blood flow to organs

SNS body response pupils

Dilate to let light in

SNS body response salivary secretions

Decrease (alpha)

SNS body response reticular activating system (altertness)

Increase

SNS body response airways

Dilate to increase air (beta)

SNS body response HR

Increase (beta)

SNS body response breakdown of fats

Increase to encourage the body to use fats for energy

SNS body response digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems

Decrease circular smooth muscle: relaxation occurs to inhibit the system (beta) OR increase sphincter close cx to prevent movement of materials from one organ to the next (alpha)

SNS body response glandural secretions from digestive, urinary, and repro systems

Decrease (alpha)

SNS body response blood flow to digestive, urinary, and repro systems and skin

Decrease (circular smooth muscle contracts to decrease blood flow) (alpha)

SNS body response blood flow to the heart, brain, and skeletal muscles

Increase (circular smooth muscle relaxes to increase blood flow) (beta)

SNS body response secretion of NE from adrenal gland

Increase, release into blood as hormones (not NT’s)

Paradoxical reaction

A typical repsonse (only difficult situations) (increase in digestive and urinary), pee yourself

Epinephrine (adrenergic) receptors

Bind to norepinephrine and epinephrine, located on most sympathetic effector organs, alpha and beta receptors

Alpha receptors

Cardiac muscle (contractility): unaffected Smooth muscle: excitatory (cx) Glands: inhibitory (decrease secretions)

Beta receptors

Cardiac muscle: excitatory (increase HR) Smooth muscle: inhibitory (relaxation) Glands: no beta receptors (unaffected)

Parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and digest or feeding and breeding

PNS nervous system functions

Promote the survival of the individual or the species

PNS nerve divergence

Very little, one postganglionic fiber only goes to 1 or a few organs

PNS neurotransmitter

Always releases ACh to effector organs (cardiac muscle, circular smooth muscle, and glands)

PNS effect

Excitatory or inhibitory

PNS nerve distribution

Viscera: internal organ S muscle and glands in the head: eyes, salivary and lacrimal glands Circular smooth muscle in vessels: genital arteries (sexual arousal), does not go to circular smooth or skin

PNS body responses to pupils

Constrict to block light

PNS body responses to salivary secretions

Increase so we can digest

PNS body responses to HR

Decrease

PNS body responses to bronchi

Constrict (less air needed)

PNS body responses to urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems

Increase all functions

PNS body responses to receptors

Nicotinic and muscarinic (parasympathetic meds work here)

Nicotinic

Found on all postganglionic cells (neuromuscular junctions), always excitatory

Muscarinic

Found on all effector organs, can be excitatory or inhibitory

Nicotinic receptors

Synapse between pre and post neurons, bind to ACh, located on the cell bodies of all neurons located in autonomic ganglia, ACh binding to nicotinic receptors is always excitatory

Muscarinic receptors

Located on all parasympathetic effector organs (+ a few sympathetic effector organs), respond to ACh, binding can be excitatory or inhibitory

Dual innervation

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic (they compete, if one stimulates the other inhibits)

Single innervation

Parasympathetic fibers do not travel to smooth muscle in skin, so increase or decrease in sympathetic stimulation only

Examples of dual innervation in heart

Symp: increase HR Para: decrease HR

Examples of dual innervation in dig system

Symp: decrease activity Para: increase activity

Examples of dual innervation in pupils

Symp: increase diameter (dilation) Para: decrease diameter

Examples of single innervation in vessels to dig system

Increase symp: constricts blood vessels to organs to decrease blood supply. Decrease symp: dilates blood vessels to organs to increase blood supply

Examples of single innervation in arrector pili

Increase symp: increase contraction (goosepumps) Decrease symp: relaxation

Control of the autonomic nervous system

Hypothalamus has the greatest (most direct) control (entirely involuntary and motor)

Mimetics

Mimic/stimulate systems (increased release of neurotransmitter and inhibiting breakdown of neurotransmitter) OR bind to and stimulate neurotransmitter receptors

Blockers

Inhibit/block systems by decrease release of neurotransmitters, stimulating the breakdown of neurotransmitters OR binding to and blocking neurotransmitter receptors

Needs of cells

Exchange of services between several organ systems and the cells of the body, blood is the middle man of making exchanges in the body

Composition of blood

55% plasma, 45% formed elements

Plasma in blood

Fluid portion of blood, 90% water and 10% solutes

What is in the plasma in blood

Proteins: mostly synthesized in the liver, circulate the plasma (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen & prothrombin)

Albumin (protein in plasma)

Assists in maintaining osmotic balance

Globulins (protein in plasma)

3D or 4D spherical proteins

Fibrinogen & prothrombin

Key role in clotting

What is formed elements in blood made up of

99% RBC

Platlets

Cell fragments surrounded by a plasma membrane

Types of WBC

Granulocytes and agranulocytes

Blood tissue functions

Transportation of plasma and RBC, protection against hemorrhage (platlets, help with clotting in certain areas so you dont bleed out), protection against infection, thermoregulation (plasma)

Hematopoiesis (blood cell production)

Orginiates in red bone marrow, 2 types of connective tissue make up the cells

2 types of connective tissue that make up blood cells

Myeloid tissue and lymphoid tissue

Myeloid tissue

RBC, WBC, platelets, macrophages

Lymphoid tissue

B cells, T cells, dendritic cells, NK cells (immunity)

What do all cells start out as

Blood stem cells (hemocytoblasts or hemocytes)

What does type of growth factor (hormone) that binds to each hemocyte determine

The type of blood cell (formed element) that will develop

Colony stimulating factor

Come from bone marrow +some WBC and produces granulocytes and agranulocytes

Granulocytes

Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils

Agranulocytes

Monocytes and lymphocytes

Thrombopoietin (liver)

Turns into megakaryocyte and that breaks apart into platelets

Blood volume

About 8% of total body weight of average sized adults, measured indirectly in humans, volume varies with age, sex, body composition, relationship of body fat to blood volume

Hematocrit

Packed cell volume, % of whole blood volume that is RBC, normal whole blood is about 55% plasma and 45% RBC

Hematocrit in males

40-54% (testosterone = increase in EPO)

Hematocrit in females

38-47% (lower testosterone levels, menstruation)

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells

RBC structure

Bi-concave discs (increase surface area), hemoglobin (Hb), no nucleus or organelles, ejected from red bone marrow BEFORE maturation

How does no mitocondria effect RBC

Anaerobic respiration

Spectrin

Protein for flexible fibers of cytoskeleton (important for functions of RBC)

Function of RBC

Transports oxygen and CO2 to and from cells, carries hemoglobin

Hemoglobin structure in RBC

Made up of 4 molecules called “hemes” + 4 globin molecules

What are globin proteins

2 alpha proteins and 2 beta proteins

What does each heme molecule consist of

Iron atoms that bind to one oxygen molecule

Erythropoiesis

Red blood cell production, produced in red bone marrow, develops when erythropoietin binds to blood stem cells

Requirements for erythropoiesis production

Iron to make heme, amino acids to make proteins, vitamin B12 and folic acid for cell divison

What happens if low O2 is detected in eryethropoiesis

Kidneys also release EPO to increase EBC

Life cycle of RBC

105-120 days, broken down in spleen, liver, and red bone marrow and reused (release of hemoglobins)

Anemia

Decreased oxygen-carrying ability in blood (decrease Hb, RBC)

Symptoms of anemia

Dizziness, fatigue, pale, cold, shortness of breath

What is anemia caused by

Changes in RBC numbers

Polycythemia

Increase in RBC production, hematocrit as high as 80% (% of blood volume that is RBC), increased viscosity of blood causing: decrease in blood flow through vessels, increased workload on heart

Polycythemia vera

Abnormality in red bone marrow - excrss RBC produced, like cancer (uncontrolled cell division)