Geography: Concepts, Tools, and Human-Environment Interaction

Geo

Earth

Graphy

to write or describe

Physical Geography

Climate, landforms, biomes

Human Geography

Culture, population, urbanization, economics

Maps

Visual representations of space

Projections

Mercator (shape accurate, area distorted), Robinson, Polar

GIS

Computer system for spatial data analysis

Models

Simplified representations of real-world patterns

Mental Maps

Internal representations of places

Absolute Location

Exact (coordinates)

Relative Location

Compared to other places

Place Characteristics

Physical (landforms, climate) and human (language, buildings)

Formal Regions

Uniform (e.g., language, climate)

Functional Regions

Centered around a node (e.g., metro area)

Vernacular Regions

Perceptual (e.g., 'The South')

Natural Landscape

Unaltered (deserts, rivers)

Cultural Landscape

Human-modified (cities, farms)

Examples of Human-Environment Interaction

Deforestation, irrigation, climate change

Movement

People, Goods, Ideas (e.g., migration, trade, globalization)

Atmosphere

air

Lithosphere

land

Hydrosphere

water

Biosphere

life

Cause of Seasons

Earth's axial tilt (major factor for Ohio)

Precipitation Types

Convectional, Orographic, Frontal

Tropical Climate

Hot/wet year-round (Amazon)

Arid Climate

Dry (Sahara)

Temperate Climate

Seasonal (U.S., Europe)

Mediterranean Climate

Dry summers, wet winters (Southern California, Mediterranean basin)

Landform Criteria

Elevation & Rock Type

Types of Plains

Coastal, Interior, Alluvial (river-based)

Biomes

Large ecological areas (e.g., tundra, rainforest)

Biodiversity Hotspots

Amazon, Madagascar, SE Asia

Renewable Resources

Water, solar, forests

Non-Renewable Resources

Oil, coal, minerals

Climate Change Impacts

Rising sea levels, extreme weather, desertification, species loss

Traditional/Subsistence Agriculture

Grow to survive

Industrial/Commercial Agriculture

Mass production for market

Primary Economic Sector

Agriculture, mining

Secondary Economic Sector

Industry, manufacturing

Tertiary Economic Sector

Services (banking, teaching)

GDP/Capita

Economic output per person

Literacy Rate

Percentage of people who can read and write

Life Expectancy

Average period a person is expected to live

Urbanization Rate

Rate at which cities grow

Infant Mortality Rate

Number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births

Formal Economy

Regulated jobs with taxes

Informal Economy

Unregulated (street vendors, barter)

Modernization Theory

All countries can develop the same way

Dependency Theory

Core nations exploit periphery

Core-Periphery Model

Core: High GDP, low birth rates (U.S., Germany); Periphery: Low GDP, high birth rates (Sudan, Haiti)

NICs

Newly Industrializing Countries (e.g., Mexico, China)

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

Births per 1,000 people in a population.

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

Deaths per 1,000 people in a population.

Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)

Calculated as CBR - CDR.

Doubling Time

Calculated as 72 divided by the Growth Rate (%).

Fertility Rate

Average number of births per woman.

Replacement Rate

Approximately 2.1 births per woman.

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

Deaths before age 1 per 1,000 births.

Population Pyramid - Pyramid Shape

Indicates high growth typical of underdeveloped countries.

Population Pyramid - Bullet Shape

Indicates stable or declining growth typical of developed countries.

World Population Distribution

Approximately 8 billion people globally.

Urban Growth Factors

Factors include industrialization, migration, services, and globalization.

Malthusian Theory

Suggests population will outgrow food supply leading to famine and war.

Neo-Malthusian Theory

Suggests a delay of crisis due to technology, but a crisis is still coming.

Technocratic Theory

Suggests innovation will always meet the needs of the population.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

A model that describes the stages of population change.

Stage 1 of DTM

High birth and death rates, low stable population.

Stage 2 of DTM

High birth rates and falling death rates, leading to rapid population increase.

Stage 3 of DTM

Falling birth rates and low death rates, resulting in slow population increase.

Stage 4 of DTM

Low birth and death rates, high stable population.

Components of Culture

Include language, religion, ethnicity, values, food, and traditions.

Cultural Diffusion

The spread of ideas and traits from one area to another.

Lingua Franca

A common global language, such as English.

Universal Religions

Religions that seek converts, such as Christianity and Islam.

Ethnic Religions

Religions into which individuals are born, such as Judaism and Hinduism.

Political Systems

Include democracy, monarchy, and authoritarianism.