Earth & Environmental Science Comprehensive Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards covering fundamental terms and concepts from Earth & Environmental Science lecture notes, suitable for exam review.

Astronomy

Study of objects and phenomena beyond Earth’s atmosphere.

Meteorology

Study of the air that surrounds Earth; focuses on weather and atmosphere.

Geology

Study of Earth’s materials and the processes that form and change them.

Oceanography

Study of Earth’s oceans, which cover more than three-quarters of the planet.

Climatology

Study of long-term weather patterns and climate trends.

Paleontology

Study of ancient life forms and past environments through fossils.

Hydrology

Study of water flow on and below Earth’s surface and related issues.

Ecology

Study of organisms, their habitats, and their interactions with the environment.

Geochemistry

Study of Earth’s chemical composition and the processes that alter it.

Tectonics

Study of internal Earth processes that shape the surface, including earthquakes and mountain-building.

Lithosphere

Rigid outer layer of Earth, comprising crust and uppermost mantle.

Continental Crust

Thick, granitic crust forming Earth’s continents.

Oceanic Crust

Thin, basaltic crust underlying ocean basins.

Hydrosphere

All water on Earth—oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, groundwater, and atmospheric vapor.

Atmosphere

Blanket of gases surrounding Earth; 78 % N₂, 21 % O₂, 1 % trace gases.

Biosphere

All living organisms on Earth and the environments they inhabit.

Hypothesis

Testable, educated guess often written as an if/then statement.

Independent Variable

Factor deliberately changed in an experiment; plotted on the x-axis.

Dependent Variable

Factor being measured; responds to changes in the independent variable; y-axis.

Control Group

Experimental group that does not receive the independent variable; used for comparison.

Constant

Condition kept the same for all groups in an experiment.

Experimental Group

Group exposed to the independent variable during an experiment.

Quantitative Data

Numerical measurements or counts collected in an experiment.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive observations such as color, texture, or odor.

Conclusion

Statement that supports or rejects a hypothesis based on analyzed data.

SI Units

International System of Units; base-10 metric measurement standard.

Density

Mass per unit volume of a substance (mass ÷ volume).

Scientific Notation

Shorthand expression of large or small numbers as a value 1–10 times a power of ten.

Model

Representation of an idea, object, or process to aid understanding.

Theory

Well-tested explanation of phenomena; may not apply in all cases.

Law

Statement describing a consistently observed natural phenomenon.

Cartography

Science and art of mapmaking.

Equator

Imaginary line circling Earth halfway between poles; 0° latitude.

Latitude

Distance north or south of the equator measured in degrees.

Longitude

Distance east or west of the Prime Meridian measured in degrees.

Prime Meridian

Reference line for longitude at 0°; passes through Greenwich, England.

Time Zone

One of 24 global divisions, each 15° of longitude, based on Earth’s rotation.

International Date Line

180° meridian where calendar dates change when crossed.

Mercator Projection

Map with parallel latitude and longitude lines; shapes correct, areas distorted.

Conic Projection

Map made by projecting globe data onto a cone; good for small areas.

Gnomonic Projection

Map projecting globe points onto a plane from a single point; useful for poles.

Topographic Map

Detailed map showing elevation and land features using contour lines.

Contour Line

Line on a map connecting points of equal elevation.

Index Contour

Bold contour line labeled with elevation on a topographic map.

Depression Contour

Hachured contour line indicating a sinkhole or low area.

Map Legend

Key explaining symbols and colors on a map.

Map Scale

Relationship between map distance and actual ground distance.

Verbal Scale

Map scale expressed as a statement (e.g., 1 cm = 1 km).

Graphic Scale

Line divided to show real-world distances on a map.

Fractional Scale

Map scale expressed as a ratio (e.g., 1 : 63 500).

Remote Sensing

Collecting data about Earth from satellites or aircraft far above the surface.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Range of electromagnetic wavelengths from gamma rays to radio waves.

Landsat Satellite

Satellite that records reflected visible and infrared radiation from Earth’s surface.

Topex/Poseidon

Satellite mission using radar to map ocean surface topography.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Network of at least 24 satellites providing precise location data to receivers.

Sea Beam

Ship-mounted sonar system mapping seafloor topography.

Rock Cycle

Continuous processes by which rocks form, change, break down, and reform.

Sedimentary Rock

Rock formed from compaction and cementation of sediments.

Igneous Rock

Rock formed by cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

Metamorphic Rock

Rock altered by heat, pressure, or chemical processes without melting.

Mantle Convection

Circulating flow of mantle material transferring heat from Earth’s core.

Ridge Push

Gravity-driven force that pushes tectonic plates away from mid-ocean ridges.

Slab Pull

Force of a subducting, cooling, and densifying plate pulling the rest of the plate downward.

Convergent Boundary

Tectonic plate boundary where plates move toward each other.

Divergent Boundary

Plate boundary where plates move apart, creating new crust.

Transform Boundary

Boundary where plates slide horizontally past one another.

Subduction

Process of one tectonic plate descending beneath another into the mantle.

Magma

Molten rock beneath Earth’s surface.

Lava

Magma that reaches Earth’s surface during an eruption.

Ring of Fire

Seismically active belt of volcanoes and earthquakes encircling the Pacific Ocean.

Lahar

Volcanic mudflow of water-saturated debris down a volcano’s slope.

Epicenter

Point on Earth’s surface directly above an earthquake’s focus.

Focus (Hypocenter)

Location within Earth where earthquake fault movement originates.

Fault

Fracture in Earth’s crust along which movement occurs.

Stress

Force per unit area acting on rock; can cause deformation.

Primary Wave (P-wave)

Fast compressional earthquake wave that moves rock parallel to wave direction.

Secondary Wave (S-wave)

(earthquakes) Slower shear wave causing rock to move perpendicular to wave direction.

Surface Wave

Seismic wave traveling along Earth’s surface; causes most earthquake damage.

Magnitude

Measure of energy released by an earthquake.

Weathering

Physical or chemical breakdown of rocks at Earth’s surface.

Erosion

Transport of weathered material by wind, water, ice, or gravity.

Mechanical Weathering

Physical breakup of rock without chemical change.

Frost Wedging

Mechanical weathering where water freezes in cracks, expanding and splitting rock.

Exfoliation

Peeling of rock layers due to pressure release or thermal expansion.

Abrasion

Grinding of rock by friction with other rock particles.

Chemical Weathering

Alteration of rock composition through chemical reactions.

Hydrolysis

Chemical weathering where minerals react with water to form clays.

Oxidation

Reaction of oxygen with minerals, often forming rust.

Carbonation

Weathering caused by carbonic acid dissolving rocks like limestone.

Acid Precipitation

Rain or snow with pH below 5.0 caused by atmospheric pollutants.

Creep

Very slow downslope movement of soil and regolith.

Mudflow

Rapid flow of water-saturated soil or volcanic ash (also called lahar).

Slide

Sudden downslope movement of rock or soil along a planar surface.

Slump

Rotational slide where a block of land moves along a curved surface.

Avalanche

Rapid flow of snow down a mountain slope.

Rockfall

Free fall of rocks from a steep cliff.

Suspension

Wind erosion where fine particles remain airborne for long distances.

Saltation

Bouncing movement of sand-sized particles in wind or water.

Deflation

Removal of surface particles by wind, lowering land surface.

Ventifact

Rock sculpted by wind-blown sand abrasion.