Colonial Era to Gilded Age (1689-1900)

Flashcards for reviewing Colonial Era to Gilded Age (1689-1900)

Salutary Neglect

British policy of loosely enforcing colonial laws, giving colonies experience in self-government.

Stamp Act

1765 tax on printed materials that sparked protest; led to boycotts discussed at the Stamp Act Congress.

Sons of Liberty

Radical group that opposed British taxes and organized protests like the Boston Tea Party; Samuel Adams, John Hancock were members.

Colonial Methods of Resistance

Boycotts, petitions, protests, and violence used by colonists to unify and challenge British control.

Ideas of the Declaration of Independence

Ideas of natural rights, government by consent, and the right to revolt justified independence and inspired democratic ideals; Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin were involved.

How Colonists Won the Revolution

Guerrilla tactics, French aid, and British mistakes led to U.S. independence and the Treaty of Paris 1783; George Washington was commander.

Treaty of Paris 1783

Ended the Revolutionary War; Britain recognized U.S. independence and gave territory to the Mississippi River; John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams were negotiators.

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

No power to tax, regulate trade, or enforce laws; led to calls for a stronger federal government (Constitution); weaknesses highlighted by Shays rebellion.

Great Compromise

Merged Virginia and New Jersey plans, creating a bicameral legislature (two-house Congress) with the Senate (equal reps) and House (by population).

Hamilton’s Beliefs and View of the Bank of the U.S.

Favored strong central government and national bank; sparked early political divisions and creation of Federalist Party; Alexander Hamilton (Treasury Secretary), Thomas Jefferson (opposed it).

Role of the President’s Cabinet

Advisors to the president in executive departments; set precedent for future executive leadership structures; George Washington (created cabinet), Hamilton (Treasury), Jefferson (State), Henry Knox (War).

Washington’s Foreign Policy

Policy of neutrality, avoiding alliances; set long-lasting precedent of isolationism in early U.S.; George Washington, Edmund Randolph (Attorney General), Thomas Jefferson (Sec. of State).

Growth of Political Parties

Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans over government power; created lasting party system and ideological splits; Hamilton (Federalist), Jefferson and Madison (Democratic-Republicans).

XYZ Affair

French officials demanded bribes from U.S. diplomats; sparked anti-French feelings and led to the Quasi-War; John Adams (President), Charles Pinckney, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry (envoys).

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

Argued that states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws; laid groundwork for states' rights arguments; Thomas Jefferson (wrote KY Res.), James Madison (wrote VA Res.).

War of 1812

War between U.S. and Britain over trade, impressment, and expansion, boosting U.S. nationalism and weakening Native resistance; James Madison (president), Andrew Jackson (Battle of New Orleans), Tecumseh (Native leader).

Importance of the Louisiana Purchase

U.S. bought Louisiana Territory from France in 1803, doubling U.S. size and boosting westward expansion; Thomas Jefferson (President), Napoleon Bonaparte (France), Lewis & Clark (explorers).

Marbury v. Madison

Supreme Court case that established judicial review, giving courts power to declare laws unconstitutional; John Marshall (Chief Justice), William Marbury, James Madison.

Jackson as President

Strong executive who appealed to the “common man,” expanding presidential power and leading to Jacksonian Democracy; Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren (VP then successor).

Trail of Tears / Indian Removal Act

Forced relocation of Native Americans west of Mississippi, led to thousands of Native deaths and loss of land; Andrew Jackson (signed act), Cherokee Nation, John Ross (Cherokee leader).

Calhoun’s Exposition and Protest

Essay defending nullification and states’ rights, challenging federal authority and foreshadowing Civil War tensions; John C. Calhoun (Vice President, South Carolina).

Jackson’s Response to the Nullification Crisis

He opposed nullification and threatened to use force, strengthening federal power over states; Andrew Jackson, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay (Compromise Tariff of 1833).

Industrial Revolution: Where, “Ingredients”

Shift from handmade to machine-made goods, primarily in the North, sparking urbanization, economic growth, and regional differences; Samuel Slater (textile mills), Eli Whitney (interchangeable parts, cotton gin).

Immigration: Who & Where

Mainly Irish and German immigrants, settled in Northern cities, boosting the labor force but causing nativist backlash; Know-Nothing Party (anti-immigrant), Irish immigrants (fled famine), Germans (political refugees).

Reform Movements – Why So Many?

Movements to improve society: temperance, abolition, women's rights, second great awakening, literature, prison, etc., reflecting Second Great Awakening and push for social justice; Dorothea Dix (asylums), Horace Mann (education), William Lloyd Garrison (abolition).

Erie Canal and Canals in General

Man-made waterways that connected the Hudson River (East Coast) to Lake Erie (middle of country) for trade, boosting Northern economy and westward expansion; DeWitt Clinton (NY governor who championed Erie Canal).

Women’s Rights Movements and Seneca Falls Convention

First women’s rights convention in 1848, launching organized fight for women’s equality; Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, Declaration of Sentiments made (still takes 70 years for women to earn the right to vote).

Horace Mann

Leader in public education reform, advocating free, universal education to prepare citizens; Horace Mann (Massachusetts education board).

Temperance Movement

Campaign to reduce or eliminate alcohol consumption, an early example of moral reform that influenced Prohibition later; American Temperance Society, Lyman Beecher.

Southerners of the Era – Lives and Beliefs

Plantation economy based on slavery, with beliefs that Southerners are being kind through slavery (giving them some food, work, etc), creating a deeply divided nation with opposing values; John C. Calhoun (pro-slavery), planters vs. poor whites.

King Cotton

Cotton industry dictated a lot, Cotton was very influential in decision-making; Eli Whitney (cotton gin), Southern plantation owners.

Slavery and Slave Growth

Expansion of slavery with cotton boom and new territories, heightening sectional tensions and moral debates; Frederick Douglass (abolitionist), enslaved people’s narratives.

Slave Codes

Laws restricting enslaved people’s behavior (were not allowed to learn how to read or write), maintaining control and reinforcing racial hierarchy; Southern legislatures (enacted codes), enslaved leaders like Nat Turner (rebelled).

Slave Resistance

Acts of defiance: work slowdowns (breaking equipment), escape to the North (underground railroad), violence (rebellions and revolts), going against rules and slave codes (learning how to read and write), showed deep opposition to slavery; Harriet Tubman, Nat Turner, Denmark Vesey.

Northerners and Beliefs on Slavery

Views ranged from abolitionist to indifferent (moral argument), increased conflict and tension over expansion of slavery; William Lloyd Garrison, Free-Soil Party, Abraham Lincoln (opposed expansion).

Free Blacks

African Americans not enslaved, mostly in North, faced discrimination but contributed to abolition and culture; Frederick Douglass, Sojourner Truth, David Walker.

Underground Railroad

Secret network to help enslaved people escape, helped thousands to freedom, angered Southern slaveholders; Harriet Tubman (conductor), Levi Coffin.

Manifest Destiny

Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand from Atlantic to Pacific, justified expansion, but intensified conflicts over slavery and Native lands; James K. Polk (expansionist president), John O'Sullivan (coined term).

Mexican Government and Texas

Mexico invited U.S. settlers to Texas, but tensions grew over slavery and loyalty, led to Texas Revolution and independence from Mexico; Stephen F. Austin, Antonio López de Santa Anna, Sam Houston.

Texas Independence and Annexation

Texas won independence in 1836; annexed by U.S. in 1845 (becomes a part of the United States as an official territory), sparked Mexican-American War and raised slavery tensions; Sam Houston (president of Texas), James K. Polk (annexed Texas).

Mexican War – Causes and Outcomes

War (1846–1848) caused by border disputes and U.S. expansionism, U.S. gained massive territory; worsened slavery debates; James K. Polk, Zachary Taylor, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Acquisition of Oregon

U.S. gained Oregon Territory peacefully from Britain (1846), completed continental U.S. in the North; fulfilled Manifest Destiny; James K. Polk ("54°40' or Fight!"), British government.

Slavery & Expansion

Debate over whether new territories would allow slavery, fueled sectionalism and led to major compromises; Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, Free-Soil Party.

Compromise of 1850 – Terms and Outcomes

Deal admitting California free state, Fugitive Slave Act, and more, temporarily eased tensions, but angered both sides; Henry Clay (proposed), Stephen Douglas, Millard Fillmore.

Kansas-Nebraska Act – Why Passed and Outcomes

Allowed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska, repealed Missouri Compromise; led to Bleeding Kansas; Stephen Douglas (proposed it), John Brown (violent resistance).

Popular Sovereignty

Policy allowing voters in territories to decide on slavery, increased sectional conflict and violence; Kansas-Nebraska act, leads to “Bleeding Kansas”; Stephen Douglas (key supporter), Lewis Cass.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin

Anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe, changed Northern attitudes and intensified sectionalism; Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln (allegedly called her "the little lady…").

Dred Scott

Supreme Court case denying citizenship to enslaved people, ruled Missouri Compromise unconstitutional; inflamed North; Dred Scott (enslaved plaintiff), Roger B. Taney (Chief Justice).

John Brown’s Raid on Harper’s Ferry

Violent attempt to start a slave revolt by seizing federal arsenal, increased Southern fears and made Brown a martyr in the North; John Brown, Robert E. Lee (led troops that captured him).

Republican Party’s Beliefs

Anti-slavery expansion party formed in 1850s, became dominant Northern party; Lincoln was first Republican president; Abraham Lincoln, William Seward, formed from Whigs & Free-Soilers.

1860 Presidential Election

Lincoln elected with no Southern support (minority President), prompted Southern secession and Civil War; Abraham Lincoln (winner), Stephen Douglas, John Breckinridge, John Bell.

Lincoln on Slavery

Personally opposed slavery, but prioritized preserving the Union, his election triggered secession; later supported abolition during war; Abraham Lincoln, Frederick Douglass (influenced him).

Americans' Beliefs About the War at the Start

Both sides believed the war would be short and victorious, led to poor preparation and high early casualties; Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis.

Advantages of Both Sides

North had more industry, railroads, population, Navy, established government structure; South had better generals/leadership/experience, home-field advantage, (don’t have to win, just not lose), strengths shaped early battles and strategies; Ulysses S. Grant (Union), Robert E. Lee (Confederate).

First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas)

First major land battle (1861), Confederate victory, shattered illusion of a quick war; Stonewall Jackson (Confederate general), Irvin McDowell (Union).

Draft

Required military service; both North and South used it, led to riots (1863), especially in the North over class/race issues; NYC Draft Riots (1863), Lincoln (Union draft order).

Battle of Shiloh

Bloody 1862 battle in Tennessee, Union victory, showed how deadly and long the war would be; Ulysses S. Grant, Albert Sidney Johnston.

Advantages of the Rifle

Rifles were more accurate and had longer distances, made old tactics deadly and caused massive casualties; Used widely by both Union and Confederate armies.

Role of Women

Women served as nurses, spies, and managed homes/farms, expanded women's roles and responsibilities; Clara Barton (founded Red Cross), Dorothea Dix (Union nurse leader).

Major Victories for the Confederacy

Early Southern wins, especially in the East, boosted morale and prolonged the war; Battles of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, led by Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson.

Anaconda Plan

Union’s strategy to blockade the South and control the Mississippi River, aimed to economically strangle the Confederacy; General Winfield Scott (designed the plan).

Battle of Gettysburg

Turning point battle in Pennsylvania (1863), Union victory, ended Lee’s invasion of the North; Abraham Lincoln (Gettysburg Address), Robert E. Lee, George Meade.

Emancipation Proclamation

Lincoln's 1863 order freeing slaves in rebel states, changed war’s purpose to ending slavery and allowed Black enlistment; Abraham Lincoln, Frederick Douglass (advocated for it).

Election of 1864

Lincoln re-elected during the war, showed Northern support for finishing the war; Abraham Lincoln (winner), George B. McClellan (opponent).

Why the South Lost

Fewer resources, lack of foreign aid, and Union’s strategy, North’s advantages overwhelmed Confederate efforts; Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman (total war strategy).

Appomattox Court House

Site of Confederate surrender in April 1865, officially ended the Civil War; Robert E. Lee (surrendered), Ulysses S. Grant (accepted surrender).

Status of the South after the war and Lincoln’s views

South was devastated economically and physically. Lincoln wanted lenient Reconstruction (10% Plan) to quickly reunite the nation; Abraham Lincoln.

Congress’ role after the war

Radical Republicans took charge of Reconstruction, wanted to punish the South and protect rights of freedmen; Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner.

Freedmen’s reaction to freedom

Joyful, but faced economic hardship and racism, sought family reunification, land, education, and jobs; Freedmen’s Bureau helped temporarily.

Ku Klux Klan

White supremacist group using terror to stop Black progress, undermined Reconstruction and Black voting rights; Nathan Bedford Forrest (first leader).

14th Amendment

Gave citizenship and equal protection under law, basis for civil rights; overruled Dred Scott decision.

Tenure of Office Act

Limited president's power to remove officials without Senate approval, used to impeach Andrew Johnson.

Impeachment of President Johnson

Congress impeached him for violating Tenure of Office Act, he avoided removal by 1 vote; weakened presidency.

Sharecropping/Tenant Farming

Farming system where poor farmers rented land from landowners, kept freedmen in poverty and dependence (new form of slavery).

Election of 1868

Ulysses S. Grant won with Black voter support, showed the importance of Black suffrage; Ulysses S. Grant.

Grant Administration

Presidency marked by scandals and corruption, undermined trust in federal government.

“Waving the bloody shirt”

Republican campaign tactic reminding voters of Civil War, used to gain support and discredit Democrats.

Credit Mobilier Scandal

Railroad company bribed Congressmen to avoid investigation (involves railroad kickbacks), example of Gilded Age corruption during Grant's term.

Black Codes

Southern laws restricting rights of freedmen, tried to maintain white supremacy after slavery ended.

Jim Crow Laws / Plessy v. Ferguson

Segregation laws upheld by Supreme Court in 1896, “Separate but equal” doctrine legalized segregation; Homer Plessy.

Why called Gilded Age?

Coined by Mark Twain to describe era of wealth covering corruption, highlights contrast between rich elite and poor workers.

Effects of era on agriculture and other jobs

Mechanization hurt farmers; industrial jobs rose, rural workers moved to cities; rise of wage labor.

Robber Barons

Powerful, wealthy industrialists seen as ruthless, built monopolies; exploited workers; Rockefeller (oil), Carnegie (steel), Vanderbilt (railroads).

Vertical and Horizontal Integration

Vertical = control all steps of production; Horizontal = buy out competitors, led to monopolies and less competition; Rockefeller (horizontal), Carnegie (vertical).

Working conditions and workers during the era

Long hours, low wages, dangerous factories, led to strikes and labor movements.

Social Darwinism & Gospel of Wealth

SD = “survival of the fittest”; GoW = rich should help the poor, justified wealth gap and philanthropy; Herbert Spencer (SD), Andrew Carnegie (GoW).

Knights of Labor and American Federation of Labor

Labor unions fighting for workers’ rights, K of L inclusive but failed; AFL focused on skilled workers; Terence Powderly (K of L), Samuel Gompers (AFL).

Nativists

Anti-immigrant Americans who feared job loss and cultural change, pushed for immigration restrictions like Chinese Exclusion Act.

Immigration - where from?

Mostly Southern and Eastern Europe (Italians, Jews, Poles), also China, created ethnic neighborhoods, tension, labor supply.

Great Migration

Movement of African Americans from South to Northern cities, escaped racism, found industrial jobs.

Movement of people onto the Great Plains

Settlers moved west due to Homestead Act and railroads, displaced Natives; increased farming.

Natives vs. Americans on Great Plains

Violent conflicts over land, U.S. military forced Natives onto reservations.

Custer’s Last Stand

Battle of Little Bighorn; Natives defeated U.S. troops, temporary Native victory; more U.S. military retaliation; Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse.

Massacre at Wounded Knee

U.S. Army killed 300 Sioux in 1890, ended Native American resistance.

Carlisle Indian School

Boarding school to assimilate Native children, stripped culture and language; Quote: “Kill the Indian, save the man.”

Cattle trails and Mining - reasons ended

Railroads ended cattle drives; big companies dominated mining, changed western economy and settlement.

Homestead Act

Gave 160 acres of free land to settlers, encouraged westward expansion.

Dawes Act

Broke up Native lands into individual plots, tried to force assimilation; lost tribal land.