Kantian ethics

What is deontological ethics?

→ Concerned with nature of the acts themselves ACTION BASED

→ Ignores outcomes

→ Acts are right/wrong in themselves (intrinsically)

Any action can be said to be right/wrong e.g. it is wrong to tell a lie because the act of lying is always wrong

How does Kant explain the concept of duty? (short-ish explanation)

Acting morally according to the good regardless of consequences

Doing what we ought to do

There is a sense of obligation we all have to perform certain actions e.g. telling the truth

What does Kant mean by ‘to will the good’?

We have free will + so must use our will as well as we can

Outcomes are never clear/may be dictated by feelings rather than reason

We don’t know whether actions have intended effects/unexpected ways people may behave in the future

So, will should be good regardless of outcome; will what is right + what is right is duty, the mark of good will

What does Kant mean by ‘the man of good will’?

The kind of motive/intention a man must have for his to be good

This motive must be entirely free from the person’s self-interest/calculation of what consequences of the action might be/emotions e.g. kindliness, generosity, love

Acts solely in accordance with duty for duty’s sake

What is the hypothetical imperative?

Actions that have no moral obligations + are based on wishes/desires

Conditional on person’s wishes

If I wish to.. I ought to

This is non-moral

What is the categorical imperative?

Since we have both reason + freedom (know + can), we ought to act morally - there are no wishes/desires involved

Regardless of consequences

E.g. I ought to tell the truth

Duty = categorical imperative

What is the first formulation of the categorical imperative?

→ The principle of universalisation

“Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”

“So act that your principle of action might safely become a law for the whole world.”

Must think whether certain action is willing the good - if it’s not, it is categorically wrong

Examples that are categorically wrong: Deception, theft, suicide, laziness, charity + cruelty to animals

What is the second formulation of the categorical imperative?

→ People are treated as ends in themselves, not means to an end

“Act so you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means also.”

Kant: Humans have ‘an intrinsic worth, that is, dignity’ - makes humans valuable ‘above all price’

There can be no use of the individual for the good of the many

Example: Entrepreneur maximising profits by paying his workers as little as possible + using his customers to the greatest extent → morally incorrect as profit can be accomplished without using people as a means

What is the third formulation of the categorical imperative?

→ The kingdom of ends - whereby a society of rationality is established in which people treat each other as ends + not means

“So, act as if you were through your maxim a law-making member of a kingdom of ends.”

We must act as if our actions made laws for everyone else to follow → I should treat the actions of all other rational persons as rules for me

*This formulation does not add much to the others except that it is an insistent reminder of our duty + responsibility + emphasizes the significance of ends

What are the 3 postulates of the categorical imperative?

1. Freedom/autonomy → no moral decision is possible without freedom - we have to be free to follow our duty which is the categorical imperative

2. Immorality (life after death in order to reach perfect God) → For morality to be meaningful, assuming that it exists; God is a necessary postulate

3. Perfect good (God) summum bonum → For ethics to work, there needs to be justice. Kant thought there must be a God who rewards good people in the afterlife

What are the strengths of Kantian ethics?

• Theory gives humans intrinsic worth, so people cannot be enslaved/exploited

• Principle of universalisation is invaluable advice to anyone e.g. ‘what if everyone did this?’

• Consequences are unpredictable so correct not to rely on them

• Doing good without seeking benefit for self is a true moral motive for society

• Prohibits actions which are seen as wrong

• Moral code which applies to all humans equally

• Clear guidelines

• Freedom + reason does give us a sense of moral obligation

• True moral motive for society

• Distinction between duty + inclination is true

• Both inclinations + emotions would complicate morality

What are the weaknesses of Kantian ethics?

• Lack of flexibility - unrealistic to strictly follow universalized laws

• Dilemma of murderer - ought to tell the truth, but should lie (otherwise someone dies) sometimes we shouldn’t follow duty

• Doesn’t consider consequences

• Ignores emotions + natural instincts - as humans we have them for a reason (impossible to remove emotions from a situation)

• Too absolute - never lie?! Constance

• Danger of any moral act being universalised? e.g. euthanasia/abortion

• Clashing duties e.g. tell a lie to keep a promise

• Reason is too limited - need loyalty, empathy + gratitude

• People need to be used as a means to an end e.g. soldiers in a war

• Can we always tell the difference between duty + inclination

• Are we really rational? free? e.g. media/propaganda/society/peers

Examples to include

• Shopkeeper who is honest because he is worried about his reputation - not honest out of duty

• Entrepreneur who uses workers + customers as means to an end (profit)

• Telling a lie to keep a promise