geology exam 1

lithosphere/geosphere

rocky earth

biosphere

plants & animals

anthroposphere

humanmade

atmosphere

gases

hydrosphere

water, ice, snow

pedosphere

soil

reservoirs

places where energy & matter are stored (clouds, streams, trees, etc.)

fluxes

movement of energy b/w reservoirs

processes

driving force that causes energy & matter to move b/w reservoirs (photosynthesis, evaporation)

potentially renewable resources

can be consumed indefinitely w/o risk of being depleted (timber, oxygen, fresh water)

non-renewable resources

cannot be replaced in a lifetime (fossil fuels)

perpetual resources

inexhaustible on a human time scale (solar energy)

solar radiation has increased, but earth’s temperature has stayed stable. why?

vegetation has increased over time, removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and reducing greenhouse effects

predominant pollutants in urban areas

sulfur dioxide & nitrogen oxides

geologic or natural hazards

natural phenomenon w/ potential to cause harm

natural disaster

sudden environmental changes resulting from long-term geologic processes that significantly harm life or property

earth’s layers order

crust, mantle, outer core, inner core

earth’s composition

crust, mantle, outer core, inner core

earth’s physical properties

lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere

lithosphere in earth’s layers

rigid outer shell, thickest in continental, thinner in oceanic

asthenosphere in earth’s layers

top is partially melted, right under lithosphere, liquid allows mantle to move

why is the inner core solid

pressure

subduction zones

places where plate tectonics (usually oceanic & continental crusts) collide, denser plates slip under less dense plates

continental drift theory

created by alfred wegner, explains moving plates

mafic

oceanic crust, rich in iron and magnesium

felsic

continental crust rich in silica, potassium, calcium, sodium, aluminum

contraction theory

created by edward suess, earth’s crust was connected, interior shrunk over time and created wrinkles and ripples; wrong b/c oceanic and continental material is build differently

divergent plate boundary

apart

mid-atlantic plate boundary type

divergent

transform plate boundary

parallel in opposite directions

san andreas plate boundary type

transform

convergent plate boundary

toward each other, crude oil & natural gas, large earthquakes, reverse fault

marianas trench plate boundary type

convergent

convergent plate boundary types

continental-continental, oceanic-oceanic, oceanic-continental

ductile plate boundary deformation

under very high pressure & temperature, rocks can flow like fluid while remaining solid

brittle plate boundary deformation

usually a reverse fault, rock is cool

transverse/ strike-slip fault, transform plate boundary

reverse fault

normal fault, divergent plate boundary

earth’s core elements

iron & nickel

hot-spot

a plume of heat rising from the mantle, stationary (fixed)

main drivers of plate tectonics

sources of energy, heat movement in the mantle, heat energy, differences in elevation

___ of earth’s magnetic field__ over time

polarity, flips

minerals

building blocks of lithosphere, naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids w/ specific chemical compositions, often made of two or more elements

native element crystals

consist of only one element

main elements that make up earth’s crust

silicon, silicates, and oxygen

crystallization process

minerals grow when atoms are bonded together into an orderly, repeating, 3D structure, occurs during fluid cooling and precipitation of solutes and solvents

instant cooling forms

glass/obsidian

slower cooling rate creates

larger crystals

why are silicate minerals common in earth’s crust?

they’re easy to form w/ the oxygen & silicate in the crust

hardness

how atoms are packed in a crystal and the bond pulling them together (moh’s hardness scale)

cleavage

the way a mineral breaks

rock forming minerals

oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium

igneous rocks

made from crystallization of molten magma, earliest rocks on earth

intrusive igneous rocks

crystallize below the surface, big crystals

extrusive igneous rocks

crystallize above ground surface, micro-crystals

mafic magma

divergent plate boundaries, rich in magnesium & iron, poor in silicon oxide

andesitic (intermediate) magma

convergent plate boundaries, moderately enriched in silicon oxide

felsic magma

continental interior, abundant quartz & mica reflecting high silica content, rich in sodium & potassium, poor in iron & magnesium

high viscosity

flows steadily

sediments are produced by…

weathering of rocks

transport agents

flowing water, ice, wind, gravity

deposition

happens when transporting fluid loses energy

sedimentary rock types

clastic (rock breakdown), chemical (chemical weathering partially dissolves minerals), biological (organisms)

metamorphic rocks

when igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks are exposed to temperature and pressure, resulting in changes in their mineralogy w/o melting, geothermometers of the past

rock cycle

elements that makeup rocks move back and forth b/w earth’s surface

critical mineral

mineral w/ unique properties, performs essential functions, few substitutes exist, supply risk is greater and critical to many manufactured products

ore minerals

when geological processes cause minerals to be concentrated in a small area, resulting in rich deposits, mostly associated w/ high crystal temps at convergent boundaries

hydrothermal ore deposit

forms by crystallization from extremely hot, metal-rich solution

types of ore deposits

classified according to origin

igneous ore deposit

associated w/ magma chambers along islands and volcanic areas at places of plate convergence

sedimentary ore deposit

associated w/ mild hydrothermal events at temperatures lower than 25C; when sedimentary rocks are heated adjacent to igneous intrusion, fluids rich in minerals migrate through sedimentary layers, leaving cement & metal bands behind

reserve

known deposits that can be mined profitably w/ existing technology

resource

entire amount of a material known to be available

insitu mining

extraction of metal from one deposit w/o excavating, leaching solvent injected into ore deposit through underground wells

why does iron no longer collect in band formations?

oxygen in modern atmosphere; oxygen reacts quickly with iron to form other products

biosphere

thin layer of life forms living in, on, and above earth’s other environmental systems; complex system composed of several interacting parts through which matter and energy flow in response to physical, chemical, an biological processes

ecosystem

assembly of organisms together w/ their physical and chemical environment

energy for life

photosynthesis and respiration

respiration

consuming organic matter in presence of oxygen, releasing stored energy for metabolic functions and producing CO2 and water as a byproduct

essential nutrients

water, carbon, nitrogen, iron, phosphorus, calcium, sulfur, and chlorine

limiting nutrients

if an organism requires only one nutrient for growth while everything else essential for growth is available (nitrogen and phosphorus); fundamental components of proteins, DNA, RNA, and ATP responsible for respiration

carbon cycle

co2 combines w/ water vapor and falls as rain, animals ingest, animals die, settle on sea floor & form sedimentary rocks, subducts into mantle, melts and co2 reenters atmosphere during eruptions

removes carbon from the atmosphere

photosynthesis

nitrogen cycle

nitrogen flows through atmosphere, ammonification makes nitrogen more accessible to plants, animals eat plants and poop or die, nitrate can return to atmosphere or be used by plants

ammonification

bacteria fixes nitrogen w/ hydrogen, forms ammonium which is more reactive and accessible to plants

nitrification

other bacteria oxidize ammonium into nitrates

denitrification

natural conversion of nitrate to nitrous oxide and the to gaseous nitrogen through actions of bacteria

phosphorus cycle

depends on slow ecological process of weathering or rocks, transport of sediments in streams, decay of plants, and circulation of ocean water; plants take dissolved phosphorus from water and soil & make available for animals: due to animals dying in bottom of water during summer b/c of density, eventually evaporate due to water overturn

autotroph or primary producers

plants and bacteria capable of manufacturing food in their tissue

heterotrophs or consumers

consume plants and other animals

trophic level

organism’s position in food chain

detritivores

animals that consume dead organic matter like fallen leaves

interspecific competition

competition among individuals of different species

intraspecific competition

competition among individuals of the same species

ecological succession

replacement of one community of organisms by another

mutualism

cooperation benefits both organisms

commensalism

association b/w organisms benefits one and doesn’t affect the other

amensalism/parasitism

one organism is affected by a relationship while another benefits

biomes

large, naturally occurring biological communities where organisms live