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What is Anisogamy?
Differences in sexual selection as a result of different number of sperm and eggs produced
Why are men more likely to have more relationships?
Men can fertilise many females at little to no reproductive cost but cannot be sure of paternity so they must maximise the no. of potential pregnancies
What is meant by intersexual selection?
Mate choice (female) - Preference for certain qualities rather than quantity i.e resourceful, wealthy, tall, strong etc
What is meant by intrasexual selection?
Mate Competition (male) - Preference of quantity over quality + a preference for youth and youth indicators i.e wide waist, big eyes, large breasts
Outline the research of Buss' (1989)
@@Buss' (1989) study@@
37 samples from 6 continents
100% of men prefer women younger to themselves
97% of women, more than men value earning potential
92% of men value physical attributes
↳These differences in mate preferences are consistent across cultures, suggesting they are rooted in evolutionary biology and sexual selection.
How are the results of Buss’ (1989) study explained by the evolutionary explanation?
For men these attributes are representative of a motherly figure, which is a signifier of fertility. For women, it fits in with their intersexual selection, and links with women looking for specific qualities in men
Give one limitation of the evolutionary explanation of relationships
@@Does not factor homosexual relationships@@
↳ Evolutionary explanations fail to account for homosexual relationships where choice of partner clearly does not result in reproductive success and so doesn't have an evolutionary advantage
Give an example of research into Inter-Sexual Selection
Clark + Hatfield (1989)
↳ Attractive females + males approached strangers on a university campus, telling them they find them very attractive
How does the research of Clark + Hatfield (1989) support intersexual selection?
Explain why Waist-Hip ratio is evidence for evolutionary explanations of relationships
Men find narrower waists and wider hips attractive as it is a way to detect female fertility - This means the more fertile a women is, the more certain they can be of paternity
What are the three factors that affect attracion in romantic relationships
What does the research of Eastwick et al. (2011) suggest about physical attractiveness?
@@Equally important to both females and males@@ however females mainly rely on it during short term relationships such as one night stands but men rely on it more for serious long-term relationships
What is meant by the Halo Effect?
Dion (1972) suuggest there is a preconcieved idea about the personality traits an atractive person must have and therefore, we act better to those people ( self-fulfilling prophecy)
Give reasons why physical attractiveness may be important when choosing a partner
Traits associated with attractiveness are indicators of good health
↳ Percieved health may mean the oartner is more capable of bearing children (women) or protecting the family from dangers (men)
Whta is the matching hypothesis?
THe theory we choose romantic partners who are of similar attractiveness to us by making a judgement on our own value as a potential partner
Why does the matching hypothesis exist?
Ideally, we all want the most attractive partner available however this isn’t possible so we compromise - We balance this wish with the fear of rejection so we choose someone ‘realistic’
Describe the stages of the matching hypothesis
Give an example of research criticism of Physical Attractiveness as a factor in relationships
Meltzer et al. (2014)
↳ Physical attractivenss is more important for men than it is for women
Give research support for Physical Attractiveness as a factor in relationships
Cunningham et al. (1955)
↳ Found that white, Asian and Hispanic males rated females with prominent cheekbones, small noses + large eyes as highly attractive
Give one study that does NOT support The Matching Hypothesis
@@Walster's (1996) Computer Dance Study@@
Give research support for the matching hypothesis
Feingold (1988)
Define Self-Disclosure
The process of deliberately revealing significant information about oneself that would not normally be known by others
Give some features of self-disclosure
What is social penetration theory?
Altman + Taylor
↳ In romantic relationships, it involves reciprocal exchange of information between partners
How do types of self-disclosure affect relationships?
Sprecher (1987) found that intimate types of SD have agreater ingluence on relationship satisfaction than more ‘neutral’ tyoes of disclosure
What are the two norms of SD?
Norm 1 - people should engage in moderately levels of SD early in a relationship
Norm 2 - Norm of reciprocity giverns that the more one discloses to another, the more expected in return
Give research support for SD
↳ They carried out a meta-analysis where they found ….
Give an issue with SD
Dominance of western research in this area skews ideas about SD
↳ Americans disclose more than Chinese/Japanese people (Chen, 1995)
What is Filter Theory?
People choose partners based on similarities in age, education, social status, and personality traits using filters to narrow down potential partners until they find someone who meets their criteria.
What 3 factors are involved in Filter Theory?
What is social demography?
Factors that influence the likelihood of a couple meeting each other in the first place
↳ Geographical Location
↳ Level of Education
↳ Social Class
↳ Ethnic Group
Give a criticism of social demography
Does not include online dating
What is Similarity in attitudes?
Partners will often share important values and beliefs
↳ @@Law of Attraction@@: If initial similarity does not exist, the relationship begins to fizzle out
What is complementarity of needs?
The ability of two romantic partners to meet each other’s needs
↳ i.e Introversion v. Extroversion, Gender roles, Emotional needs
Give a criticism of Complemantarity of needs
Later on in the relationship, opposites attract
Give research support for Filter Theory
↳ People are more likely to form relationships with those who have similar attitudes and values.
Give an issue with Filter Theory
↳ Filter theory suggests people will find a successful relationship if all the steps of the criteria are met which isn’t true + in the modern world, people have the choice to pick anyone from anywhere online
What is Social Exchange Theory?
↳ An economic theory, based on the idea of weighing up pros and cons of whether the relationship is profitable
Describe SET
Give 4 factors into SET
Sampling
We compare potential rewards + costs with other relationships available at the time
Bargaining
We give + recieve rewards to test whether a deeper relationship is worthwhile
Commitment
The relationship increases in predictability, meaning they know how to elicit rewards from the other which lowers costs
Instituationalisation
The relationship norms are developed which establishes the patterns of rewards/costs for each partner
Give an issue with SET
↳ It is a Western theory focusing on western relationships. In an individualist culture, we make decisions based on whatever make us happy. However in a collectivist culture, you decide on what is best for the group as a whole
What is Equity theory?
An extension of the SET
How may somebody who is over-benefitting from a relationship feel?
Overbenefitting likely makes them feel guilt, shame + discomfort
↳ e.g always being bought gifts
How may someone who is under-benefitting from a relationship feel?
Underbenefitting likely makes them feel anger, hostility + resentful
↳ always planning + organising dates, buying gifts + nor recieving anything back
Explain research into equity theory
↳ Surveyed hundreds of married couples of all ages, finding that in child-rearing years, wives felt under-benefitted and husbands felt over benefitted
T/F: Equity means equality
False
Why might people still feel their relationship is equitable despite not being equal?
As long as there is a restoration of percieved equity, which means the partners do not have to contribute the same amount - only that they must contribute fairly
Give research critiscism of equity theory
↳ In communal relationships (between lovers & friends) there is less concern with equity, based on the belief things will balanve out eventuallu
Give an issue with Equity Theory
Culture Bias
↳ In some countries, the perception of fairness is skewed so one partner (often the male) dominates + controls the relationship
What is the Investment Model?
Rusbult (1980)
↳ Suggests that based on 3 factors, we decide whether we want to persist in relationships or not
What is meant by Satisfaction Level?
Positive/Negative emotions experienced in a relationship
↳ If we feel one partner is not fulfilling our compassionate, domestic or sexual needs we may leave
What is meant by Quality of Alternatives?
Percieving a more attractive alternate/ better option, may lead the partner to consider whether they are getting the fairest deal
What is meant by Investment Size?
Rusbult suggested that anything a person has ‘invested’ in a relationship (that will be lost if they leave it), is considered when deciding whether to remain in a relationship
What two types of investment are there?
Low Satisfaction level, High QOA and Low Investment Size leads to….
More likely to leave
High Satisfaction level, Low QOA and High Investment Size leads to….
More likely to Stay
Give research support for the investment model of relationship
Le & Agnew (2003)
↳ Conducted a meta-analysis of 53 studies from 5 countries
Give an issue with the investment model
Culture Bias
↳ Cultures where divorce is prohibited or women specifically are unable to make the decision to leave or stay makes Investment Model irrelevant
Explain Relationship Breakdown
↳ Suggest relationship breakdown occurs in a series of phases, meaning when the threshold of of one is breached, the next occurs
What are the 4 stages of relationship breakdown?
What is the Intra-Psychic Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
A consideration of whether one might be better off out of the relationship.
↳ Threshold: “I’d be justified in withdrawing”
What is the Dyadic Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
Individuals confront their partners and disciss the future of the relationship.
↳ Threshold: “I mean it”
What is the Social Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
Dissatisfaction is no longe rprivate as friends and family are informed - this makes it more difficult for reconcilliation. This is also the end of the relationship
↳ Threshold: “It’s now inevitable”
What is the Grave-Dressing Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
Partners attempt to justify their action, as each wishes to present themselves in a good light
Give research support for Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown
Explains how couples can stay together even if they have doubts about the relationship
↳ This shows breakdown is not inevitable and the model isn’t deterministic
Give research criticism of Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown
Doesn’t recognise the possibility of personal growth following relationship breakdown
Give an issue with Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown
Culture Bias
↳ In cultures where breakup/divorce isn’t allowed, this is not applicable
What is the Hyperpersonal Model?
Walther (2011)
↳ Self-Disclosure in online relationships happens earlier than in face-to-face ones
What is meant by selective self presentation?
People can edit their responses to make themselves seem more positive
What is the Reduced Cues Theory?
Sproull + Kiesler (1986)
↳ Due to less cues (Body Language, subtle facial expressions), online relationships are less open and less honest
This makes CMC more agressive + reduces the likelihood of intimate SD
What is gating?
A gate is a obstacle that could interfere with the developmenmt of a relationship
Give research which shows the correlation between gating and CMC
McKenna + Bargh (1999)
↳ Absence of Gates means that there are less barriers to forming intimate relationships with people online
Give research support for the absence of gating increasing relationship oppurtunities
Baker + Oswald (2010)
↳ 207 male and female ppts to complete a questionairre
Give a criticism of research into virtual relationships
Assumes all online relationships are formed solely online
↳ A majority meet FtF after several online interactions
Give research support for virtual relationships
McKenna (2000)
↳ Surveyed 568 internet users who’d formed online relationships
Give an issue with Virtual Relationships
Culture Bias
↳ Nakanishi (1986) found that Japanes women preffered lower levels of SD in close relationships. This shows that virtul relationships vary dependong on the cultural context.
What is a parasocial relationship?
Relationship (often with a celebrity) which is opn-sided
↳ The target individual is unaware of the existence of the person who made the relationship
What factors increase the likelihood of a parasocial relationship forming?
What two theories explain the nature of parasocial relationships?
What is The Attachment Theory of explanation for parasocial relationships?
Weiss (1991) states that TV personalities exhibit the 3fundamental propoerties of a real adult relationships:
Give research support for the Attachment Theory Explanation
@@Cole & Leets (1999)@@
↳ Individuals with an insecure-resistant primary attachment were most likely to develop parasocial relationships
Summarise the research of Cole & Leets
↳ conducted a meta-analysis of 24 studies on the effects of peer support on academic achievement, self-esteem, and social skills.
What is the Absorption Addiction Model?
Parasocial relationships form as the result of life defieciencies such as lack of real relationships, loneliness + shyness
What scale is used to measure level of PSR?
Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
Outline the 3 levels in the process of forming celebrity-based PSR’s
Giles & Maltby (2006)
What is the Intense-Personal level?
Intense compulsive feelings towards the celebrity (absorption)
What is the Entertainment-Social level?
Celebrity is a source of of gossip or interaction
What is the Borderline-Pathological level?
Uncontrollable behaviours or actions as a result of their PSR (addiction)
Give support for the Absorption Addiction model
Give an issue with explanations of parasocial relationships
Culture Bias
↳ Parasocial Relationships are often Western and only generalisable to Western Cultures