AQA Psychology - Relationships

What is **Anisogamy**?

Differences in sexual selection as a result of different number of sperm and eggs produced

Why are **men** more likely to have **more** relationships?

Men can **fertilise** many females at l**ittle to no reproductive cost** but cannot be sure of paternity so they must maximise the no. of potential pregnancies

What is meant by **intersexual** selection?

**Mate choice (female)** - Preference for certain qualities rather than quantity i.e *resourceful, wealthy, tall, strong etc*

What is meant by **intrasexual** selection?

**Mate Competition (male)** - Preference of quantity over quality + a preference for youth and youth indicators *i.e* *wide waist, big eyes, large breasts*

Outline the research of Buss' (1989)

\
@@***Buss' (1989) study***@@

* **37 samples** from **6 continents**
* **100%** of **men** prefer **women younger to themselves**
* **97%** of **women**, more than men value **earning potential**
* **92%** of **men** value **physical attributes**

↳These differences in mate preferences are **consistent across cultures**, suggesting they are **rooted in evolutionary biology** and sexual selection.

How are the **results** of Buss’ (1989) study explained by the **evolutionary explanation**?

For men these attributes are representative of a **motherly** figure, which is a signifier of fertility. For women, it fits in with their i**ntersexual selection**, and links with women looking for specific qualities in men

Give one **limitation** of the evolutionary explanation of relationships

@@Does not factor homosexual relationships@@

↳ Evolutionary explanations fail to account for homosexual relationships where **choice of partner** clearly does not result in **reproductive success** and so doesn't have an **evolutionary advantage**

Give an example of research into Inter-Sexual Selection

**Clark + Hatfield (1989)**

↳ Attractive females + males approached strangers on a university campus, telling them they find them very attractive

* When asked “**Would you go on a date with me?",** 50% of males + females said they would go on a date with them
* When asked “**Would you go back to my apartment**?”, 69% of males + 6% of females agreed
* When asked “Would you have sex with me?”, 75% of males + 0% of the women agreed

How does the research of **Clark + Hatfield (1989)** support **intersexual selection?**

* Shows for women, **physical attraction on its own** isn’t enough to like someone or want to be physical with them (which may result in pregnancy)
* Men on the other hand are willing to go to dates, apartments and even have sex with women due to the idea that quantity is more prized than quality

Explain why **Waist-Hip ratio** is evidence for evolutionary explanations of relationships

Men find **narrower waists** and **wider hips** attractive as it is a way to detect **female fertility** - This means the more fertile a women is, the more certain they can be of paternity

What are the **three** factors that affect attracion in romantic relationships

* Physical Attractiveness
* Self-Disclosure
* The Filter Theory

What does the research of **Eastwick et al. (2011)** suggest about physical attractiveness?

@@Equally important to both females and males@@ **however** females mainly rely on it during short term relationships such as **one night stands** but men rely on it more for **serious long-term relationships**

What is meant by the **Halo Effect**?

**Dion (1972)** suuggest there is a preconcieved idea about the personality traits an atractive person must have and therefore, we act better to those people ( *self-fulfilling prophecy)*

Give reasons why physical attractiveness may be important when choosing a partner

**Traits associated with attractiveness are indicators of good health**

↳ Percieved health may mean the oartner is more capable of bearing children (women) or protecting the family from dangers (men)

Whta is the **matching hypothesis**?

THe theory we choose **romantic partners** who are of **similar attractiveness** to us by making a judgement on our **own value** as a potential partner

Why does the **matching hypothesis exist**?

Ideally, we all want the **most attractive partner available** however this isn’t possible so we compromise - We balance this wish with the fear of rejection so we choose someone ‘realistic’

Describe the **stages** of the **matching hypothesis**

* The more socially desirable a perosn is (social status,, intelligence, physical attractiveness etc.), the more desirable they expect their **dating/marriage** partner to be
* Couples who are matrched are **more likely** to have happy, enduring relationships
* The comparison between own value and potential partner’s value ultimately determines whether or not they pursue them

Give an example of research **criticism of** Physical Attractiveness as a factor in relationships

Meltzer et al. (2014)

↳ **Physical attractivenss is more important for men than it is for women**

* Objective rankings of wives’ physical attractivenss was posirtively correlated with husband’s satisfaction at the beginning of the marrigae an the ndxt **4 years**
* Conversely, there was no correlation between huband’s attractiveness and wives’ satisfaction
* This shows that physical attraction may suffer from **beta bias** as it assumes men and women are similar in their views on pshycial atractiveness

Give **research support** for Physical Attractiveness as a factor in relationships

**Cunningham et al. (1955)**

↳ Found that white, Asian and Hispanic males rated females with **prominent cheekbones, small noses + large eyes** as **highly attractive**

* The universality of these findings suggests that **attractiveness** might be a **genetically reproduced mechanism** aiding sexual selection rather than an environmental preference

Give one study that **does NOT support** The Matching Hypothesis

@@**Walster's (1996) Computer Dance Study**@@

* The study involved participants who were randomly assigned dance partners based on their compatibility scores.
* The results showed that participants **did not choose partners who were similar to themselves** in terms of physical attractiveness.
* Participants tended to rate their partners as **more attractive than themselves**, suggesting that people may be influenced by other factors such as **personality, compatibility**, and **social status** when choosing romantic partners.

Give **research support** for **the matching hypothesis**

 **Feingold (1988)**

* Feingold (1988) conducted a meta-analysis of 17 studies on the matching hypothesis in romantic relationships
* Feingold's analysis showed a **moderate correlation** between the attractiveness of partners
* The correlation was stronger for couples who had been together for a shorter period of time, suggesting that physical attractiveness may be more important in the early stages of a relationship.

Define **Self-Disclosure**

The process of deliberately revealing **significant** information about oneself that would **not normally** be known by others

Give some **features** of **self-disclosure**

* Involves Risk meaning there is a level of vulnerability
* Ideally **reciprocal**
* **Ideally** **gradual** so it increases in **depth**

What is **social penetration theory**?

**Altman + Taylor**

↳ In romantic relationships, it involves reciprocal exchange of information between partners

* For a relationship to progress, the other partner m ust also reveal snesitive information
* Being able to disclose insinuates trust

How do **types of self-disclosure** affect relationships?

**Sprecher (1987)** found that **intimate** types of SD have agreater ingluence on relationship satisfaction than more ‘neutral’ tyoes of disclosure

What are the **two norms** of SD?

**Norm 1** - people should engage in moderately levels of SD early in a relationship

**Norm 2** - Norm of reciprocity giverns that the more one discloses to another, the more expected in return

Give **research support for SD**

### @@**Collins & Miller (1994)**@@

↳ They carried out a meta-analysis where they found ….

* People who engage in intimate SD tend to be liked more than those who engage in more neutral SD
* SD also increased likability if they believed the information was only shared w/ them

Give an **issue** with SD

**Dominance of western research in this area skews ideas about SD**

↳ Americans disclose more than Chinese/Japanese people (Chen, 1995)

* There are also differences in how these cultures self-disclose - in Japanese culture, women **disclose less than men**

What is **Filter Theory**?

People choose partners based on similarities in age, education, social status, and personality traits using filters to narrow down potential partners until they find someone who meets their criteria.

What 3 factors are involved in Filter Theory?

* Social Demography
* Similarity in attitudes
* Complementarity of needs

What is **social demography?**

Factors that **influence** the likelihood of a couple meeting each other in the first place

↳ Geographical Location

↳ Level of Education

↳ Social Class

↳ Ethnic Group

Give a **criticism** of social demography

Does not include **online dating**

What is **Similarity in attitudes?**

Partners will often share **important values and beliefs**

↳ @@Law of Attraction@@: **If initial similarity does not exist, the relationship begins to fizzle out**

What is **complementarity of needs**?

The **ability** of two romantic partners to meet **each other’s needs**

↳ i.e Introversion v. Extroversion, Gender roles, Emotional needs

Give a **criticism** of **Complemantarity of needs**

Later on in the relationship, opposites attract

Give **research support** for **Filter Theory**

### @@Kerckoff & Davis (1962) Longditudinal Study@@

↳ People are more likely to form relationships with those who have similar attitudes and values.

* Physical proximity is also important in forming relationships.
* Physical attractiveness plays a role in initial attraction but is less important in long-term relationships.
* The study provided support for the idea that people use filters to narrow down potential partners based on various factors.

Give an **issue** with **Filter Theory**

### **Filter Theory is Deterministic**

↳ Filter theory suggests people __will__ find a successful relationship if all the steps of the criteria are met which isn’t true + in the modern world, people have the choice to pick anyone from anywhere **online**

What is **Social Exchange Theory?**

### @@Thibaut and Kelley (1959)@@

↳ An economic theory, based on the idea of weighing up pros and cons of whether the relationship is profitable

* **Based on the underlying idea that all people are fundementally selfish**

Describe **SET**

* **The greater the reward (companionship. being cared for, time spent etc.),** the greater the profit
* Poeple aim to minimise costs & maximise rewards
* Thibaut & Kelley proposed that we develop a **comparison level,** which is a standard against which **all our relationships are judged**
* Some with a low CL may be happy in a poor relationship, whereas those with a high CL will have high expectations of future relationships

Give **4 factors** into **SET**

1. **Sampling**

We compare potential rewards + costs with other relationships available at the time
2. **Bargaining**

We give + recieve rewards to test whether a deeper relationship is worthwhile
3. **Commitment**

The relationship increases in predictability, meaning they know how to elicit rewards from the other which lowers costs
4. **Instituationalisation**

The relationship norms are developed which establishes the patterns of rewards/costs for each partner

Give an **issue** with SET

## %%**Culture Bias**%%

↳ It is a **Western** **theory** focusing on western relationships. In an individualist culture, we make decisions based on whatever make us happy. However in a collectivist culture, you decide on what is best for the group as a whole

What is **Equity theory?**

**An extension of the SET**

* It’s central assumption is that people strive to achieve **fairness** in their relationships and feel distressed if they percieve **unfairness**

How may somebody who is over-benefitting from a relationship feel?

Overbenefitting likely makes them feel **guilt, shame + discomfort**

↳ e.g always being bought gifts

How may someone who is under-benefitting from a relationship feel?

Underbenefitting likely makes them feel **anger, hostility + resentful**

↳ always planning + organising dates, buying gifts + nor recieving anything back

Explain research into **equity theory**

## @@Schafer + Keith (1980)@@

↳ Surveyed **hundreds of married couples** of all ages, finding that in **child-rearing years,** wives felt under-benefitted and husbands felt over benefitted

* During the **honeymoon period** and **empty nest stages**, both husbands + wives reported **equity**

T/F: **Equity means equality**

False

Why might people still feel their relationship is **equitable** despite not being **equal?**

As long as there is a restoration of **percieved equity,** which means the partners do **not** have to contribute the **same amount -** only that they must contribute fairly

Give research **critiscism** of **equity theory**

### @@Clark & Mills (1979)@@

↳ In **communal relationships** (between lovers & friends) there is less concern with equity, based on the belief things will balanve out eventuallu

Give an **issue** with **Equity Theory**

**Culture Bias**

↳ In some countries, the perception of fairness is skewed so one partner (often the male) **dominates + controls** the relationship

What is the **Investment Model?**

Rusbult (1980)

↳ Suggests that based on **3 factors,** we decide whether we want to persist in relationships or not

* **Satisfaction Levels**
* Investment Size
* Quality of Alternatives

What is meant by **Satisfaction Level?**

Positive/Negative emotions experienced in a relationship

↳ If we feel one partner is **not** fulfilling our compassionate, domestic or sexual needs we may leave

What is meant by **Quality of Alternatives?**

Percieving a **more attractive alternate/ better option,** may lead the partner to consider whether they are getting the fairest deal

What is meant by **Investment Size?**

Rusbult suggested that anything a person has ‘invested’ in a relationship (that will be lost if they leave it), is considered when deciding whether to remain in a relationship

What two types of investment are there?

* **Extrinsic -** Children, Mutual Friends
* **Intrinsic -** money, energy, time

Low Satisfaction level, High QOA and Low Investment Size leads to….

**More likely to leave**

High Satisfaction level, Low QOA and High Investment Size leads to….

**More likely to Stay**

Give research support for the **investment model of relationship**

**Le & Agnew (2003)**

↳ Conducted a **meta-analysis** of 53 studies from 5 countries

* Across **all studies,** the correlation between **commitment** & **satisfaction** were strong

Give an **issue** with the **investment model**

Culture Bias

↳ Cultures where divorce is prohibited or women specifically are unable to make the decision to leave or stay makes Investment Model irrelevant

Explain **Relationship Breakdown**

### @@Duck (1982)@@

↳ Suggest relationship breakdown occurs in a series of phases, meaning when the threshold of of one is breached, the next occurs

What are the **4 stages** of **relationship breakdown?**

* Intra-Psychic
* Dyadic
* Social
* Grave-Dressing

What is the **Intra-Psychic Phase** of **Relationship Breakdown?**

A consideration of whether one might be better off out of the relationship.

↳ *Threshold: “I’d be justified in withdrawing”*

What is the **Dyadic Phase** of **Relationship Breakdown?**

Individuals confront their partners and disciss the future of the relationship.

↳ *Threshold: “I mean it”*

What is the **Social Phase** of **Relationship Breakdown?**

Dissatisfaction is no longe rprivate as friends and family are informed - this makes it more difficult for reconcilliation. This is also **the end of the relationship**

↳ *Threshold: “It’s now inevitable”*

What is the **Grave-Dressing Phase** of **Relationship Breakdown?**

Partners attempt to justify their action, as each wishes to present themselves in a good light

Give **research support** for Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown

Explains how couples can stay together even if they have doubts about the relationship

↳ This shows breakdown **is not inevitable** and the model **isn’t deterministic**

Give **research criticism** of Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown

Doesn’t recognise the possibility of personal growth following relationship breakdown

Give an **issue with** Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown

**Culture Bias**

↳ In cultures where breakup/divorce isn’t allowed, this is not applicable

What is the **Hyperpersonal Model?**

Walther (2011)

↳ Self-Disclosure in **online relationships** happens earlier than in **face-to-face** ones

* Relationships become more **intense + intimate** quicker
* They also end **quicker**

What is meant by **selective self presentation?**

People can **edit** their responses to make themselves seem more positive

What is the **Reduced Cues Theory?**

Sproull + Kiesler (1986)

↳ Due to **less cues** (Body Language, subtle facial expressions), online relationships are **less open** and **less honest**

This makes CMC more **agressive +** reduces the likelihood of **intimate SD**

What is **gating?**

A **gate** is a **obstacle** that could interfere with the **developmenmt of a relationship**

Give research which shows the correlation between gating and CMC

McKenna + Bargh (1999)

↳ Absence of Gates means that there are less barriers to forming intimate relationships with people online

* People who **lack confidence** may use the extra time to consider their responses more carefully
* People who are unattractive are able to choose an **edited piucture or avatar** of themselves

Give research support for the absence of gating increasing relationship oppurtunities

Baker + Oswald (2010)

\
↳ 207 male and female ppts to complete a questionairre

* They were asked to score **shyness, internet use + quality of friendships**
* Those with **high shyness scores + internet use**, often had a **high** correlation w/ quality of friendships

Give a **criticism** of research into virtual relationships

Assumes all online relationships are formed **solely** online

↳ A majority meet FtF after several online interactions

Give **research support** for **virtual relationships**

McKenna (2000)

↳ Surveyed 568 internet users who’d formed online relationships

* **57%** had **deepened** the intimacy level of their relationship
* **70%** lasted 2 years or more compared to **50%** of FtF relationships

Give an **issue** with Virtual Relationships

**Culture Bias**

↳ **Nakanishi (1986)** found that Japanes women preffered **lower levels** of **SD** in close relationships. This shows that virtul relationships vary dependong on the cultural context.

What is a **parasocial relationship?**

Relationship (often with a **celebrity)** which is **opn-sided**

↳ The target individual is unaware of the existence of the person who made the relationship

What factors **increase** the **likelihood** of a parasocial relationship forming?

* If the object of affection is **attractive**
* If they are seen to be **similar** to us
* If the viewer is **female**
* If the viewer is **lonely + shy**

What **two theories** explain the nature of parasocial relationships?

* absorptioon-Addiction Model
* Attachment Theory Explanation

What is The Attachment Theory of explanation for **parasocial relationships?**

Weiss (1991) states that TV personalities exhibit the 3fundamental propoerties of a real adult relationships:

* Proximity Seeking
* Secure Base
* Protest at Disruption

Give **research** **support** for the **Attachment Theory Explanation**

@@**Cole & Leets (1999)**@@

↳ Individuals with an **insecure-resistant primary attachment** were most likely to develop parasocial relationships

Summarise the research of Cole & Leets

### **Cole & Leets (1999)**

↳ conducted a **meta-analysis** of 24 studies on the effects of peer support on academic achievement, self-esteem, and social skills.

* Peer support had a positive impact on all three outcomes.
* The strongest effect was observed on academic achievement.
* The study suggests that peer support programs can be an effective way to improve academic and social outcomes for students.

What is the **Absorption Addiction Model?**

Parasocial relationships form as the result of life defieciencies such as lack of **real relationships, loneliness + shyness**

What scale is used to measure level of PSR?

Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)

Outline the 3 levels in the process of forming celebrity-based PSR’s

**Giles & Maltby (2006)**

* Entertainment-Social
* Intense-Personal
* Borderline-Patholological

What is the **Intense-Personal** level?

**Intense compulsive** feelings towards the celebrity (**absorption**)

What is the **Entertainment-Social** level?

Celebrity is a source of of **gossip or interaction**

What is the **Borderline-Pathological** level?

**Uncontrollable behaviours** or actions as a result of their PSR (addiction)

Give **support for** the Absorption Addiction model

* Maltby (2001) supports the Absorption Addiction model.
* Individuals with high absorption scores are more likely to experience altered states of consciousness.
* Absorption can lead to addictive behaviors as individuals seek to maintain pleasurable experiences.
* Maltby's research suggests that absorption is a key factor in understanding addictive behaviors.

Give an **issue** with explanations of **parasocial relationships**

Culture Bias

↳ **Parasocial Relationships are often Western and only generalisable to Western Cultures**

* Cultures w/o media access don’t have exposure to PSR
* *However some behaviours have been shown to be consistent across cultures*