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What is Anisogamy?
Differences in sexual selection as a result of different number of sperm and eggs produced
Why are men more likely to have more relationships?
Men can fertilise many females at little to no reproductive cost but cannot be sure of paternity so they must maximise the no. of potential pregnancies
What is meant by intersexual selection?
Mate choice (female) - Preference for certain qualities rather than quantity i.e resourceful, wealthy, tall, strong etc
What is meant by intrasexual selection?
Mate Competition (male) - Preference of quantity over quality + a preference for youth and youth indicators i.e wide waist, big eyes, large breasts
Outline the research of Buss' (1989)
Buss' (1989) study
37 samples from 6 continents
100% of men prefer women younger to themselves
97% of women, more than men value earning potential
92% of men value physical attributes
↳These differences in mate preferences are consistent across cultures, suggesting they are rooted in evolutionary biology and sexual selection.
How are the results of Buss’ (1989) study explained by the evolutionary explanation?
For men these attributes are representative of a motherly figure, which is a signifier of fertility. For women, it fits in with their intersexual selection, and links with women looking for specific qualities in men
Give one limitation of the evolutionary explanation of relationships
Does not factor homosexual relationships
↳ Evolutionary explanations fail to account for homosexual relationships where choice of partner clearly does not result in reproductive success and so doesn't have an evolutionary advantage
Give an example of research into Inter-Sexual Selection
Clark + Hatfield (1989)
↳ Attractive females + males approached strangers on a university campus, telling them they find them very attractive
When asked “Would you go on a date with me?", 50% of males + females said they would go on a date with them
When asked “Would you go back to my apartment?”, 69% of males + 6% of females agreed
When asked “Would you have sex with me?”, 75% of males + 0% of the women agreed
How does the research of Clark + Hatfield (1989) support intersexual selection?
Shows for women, physical attraction on its own isn’t enough to like someone or want to be physical with them (which may result in pregnancy)
Men on the other hand are willing to go to dates, apartments and even have sex with women due to the idea that quantity is more prized than quality
Explain why Waist-Hip ratio is evidence for evolutionary explanations of relationships
Men find narrower waists and wider hips attractive as it is a way to detect female fertility - This means the more fertile a women is, the more certain they can be of paternity
What are the three factors that affect attracion in romantic relationships
Physical Attractiveness
Self-Disclosure
The Filter Theory
What does the research of Eastwick et al. (2011) suggest about physical attractiveness?
Equally important to both females and males however females mainly rely on it during short term relationships such as one night stands but men rely on it more for serious long-term relationships
What is meant by the Halo Effect?
Dion (1972) suuggest there is a preconcieved idea about the personality traits an atractive person must have and therefore, we act better to those people ( self-fulfilling prophecy)
Give reasons why physical attractiveness may be important when choosing a partner
Traits associated with attractiveness are indicators of good health
↳ Percieved health may mean the oartner is more capable of bearing children (women) or protecting the family from dangers (men)
Whta is the matching hypothesis?
THe theory we choose romantic partners who are of similar attractiveness to us by making a judgement on our own value as a potential partner
Why does the matching hypothesis exist?
Ideally, we all want the most attractive partner available however this isn’t possible so we compromise - We balance this wish with the fear of rejection so we choose someone ‘realistic’
Describe the stages of the matching hypothesis
The more socially desirable a perosn is (social status,, intelligence, physical attractiveness etc.), the more desirable they expect their dating/marriage partner to be
Couples who are matrched are more likely to have happy, enduring relationships
The comparison between own value and potential partner’s value ultimately determines whether or not they pursue them
Give an example of research criticism of Physical Attractiveness as a factor in relationships
Meltzer et al. (2014)
↳ Physical attractivenss is more important for men than it is for women
Objective rankings of wives’ physical attractivenss was posirtively correlated with husband’s satisfaction at the beginning of the marrigae an the ndxt 4 years
Conversely, there was no correlation between huband’s attractiveness and wives’ satisfaction
This shows that physical attraction may suffer from beta bias as it assumes men and women are similar in their views on pshycial atractiveness
Give research support for Physical Attractiveness as a factor in relationships
Cunningham et al. (1955)
↳ Found that white, Asian and Hispanic males rated females with prominent cheekbones, small noses + large eyes as highly attractive
The universality of these findings suggests that attractiveness might be a genetically reproduced mechanism aiding sexual selection rather than an environmental preference
Give one study that does NOT support The Matching Hypothesis
Walster's (1996) Computer Dance Study
The study involved participants who were randomly assigned dance partners based on their compatibility scores.
The results showed that participants did not choose partners who were similar to themselves in terms of physical attractiveness.
Participants tended to rate their partners as more attractive than themselves, suggesting that people may be influenced by other factors such as personality, compatibility, and social status when choosing romantic partners.
Give research support for the matching hypothesis
Feingold (1988)
Feingold (1988) conducted a meta-analysis of 17 studies on the matching hypothesis in romantic relationships
Feingold's analysis showed a moderate correlation between the attractiveness of partners
The correlation was stronger for couples who had been together for a shorter period of time, suggesting that physical attractiveness may be more important in the early stages of a relationship.
Define Self-Disclosure
The process of deliberately revealing significant information about oneself that would not normally be known by others
Give some features of self-disclosure
Involves Risk meaning there is a level of vulnerability
Ideally reciprocal
Ideally gradual so it increases in depth
What is social penetration theory?
Altman + Taylor
↳ In romantic relationships, it involves reciprocal exchange of information between partners
For a relationship to progress, the other partner m ust also reveal snesitive information
Being able to disclose insinuates trust
How do types of self-disclosure affect relationships?
Sprecher (1987) found that intimate types of SD have agreater ingluence on relationship satisfaction than more ‘neutral’ tyoes of disclosure
What are the two norms of SD?
Norm 1 - people should engage in moderately levels of SD early in a relationship
Norm 2 - Norm of reciprocity giverns that the more one discloses to another, the more expected in return
Give research support for SD
↳ They carried out a meta-analysis where they found ….
People who engage in intimate SD tend to be liked more than those who engage in more neutral SD
SD also increased likability if they believed the information was only shared w/ them
Give an issue with SD
Dominance of western research in this area skews ideas about SD
↳ Americans disclose more than Chinese/Japanese people (Chen, 1995)
There are also differences in how these cultures self-disclose - in Japanese culture, women disclose less than men
What is Filter Theory?
People choose partners based on similarities in age, education, social status, and personality traits using filters to narrow down potential partners until they find someone who meets their criteria.
What 3 factors are involved in Filter Theory?
Social Demography
Similarity in attitudes
Complementarity of needs
What is social demography?
Factors that influence the likelihood of a couple meeting each other in the first place
↳ Geographical Location
↳ Level of Education
↳ Social Class
↳ Ethnic Group
Give a criticism of social demography
Does not include online dating
What is Similarity in attitudes?
Partners will often share important values and beliefs
↳ Law of Attraction: If initial similarity does not exist, the relationship begins to fizzle out
What is complementarity of needs?
The ability of two romantic partners to meet each other’s needs
↳ i.e Introversion v. Extroversion, Gender roles, Emotional needs
Give a criticism of Complemantarity of needs
Later on in the relationship, opposites attract
Give research support for Filter Theory
↳ People are more likely to form relationships with those who have similar attitudes and values.
Physical proximity is also important in forming relationships.
Physical attractiveness plays a role in initial attraction but is less important in long-term relationships.
The study provided support for the idea that people use filters to narrow down potential partners based on various factors.
Give an issue with Filter Theory
↳ Filter theory suggests people will find a successful relationship if all the steps of the criteria are met which isn’t true + in the modern world, people have the choice to pick anyone from anywhere online
What is Social Exchange Theory?
↳ An economic theory, based on the idea of weighing up pros and cons of whether the relationship is profitable
Based on the underlying idea that all people are fundementally selfish
Describe SET
The greater the reward (companionship. being cared for, time spent etc.), the greater the profit
Poeple aim to minimise costs & maximise rewards
Thibaut & Kelley proposed that we develop a comparison level, which is a standard against which all our relationships are judged
Some with a low CL may be happy in a poor relationship, whereas those with a high CL will have high expectations of future relationships
Give 4 factors into SET
Sampling
We compare potential rewards + costs with other relationships available at the time
Bargaining
We give + recieve rewards to test whether a deeper relationship is worthwhile
Commitment
The relationship increases in predictability, meaning they know how to elicit rewards from the other which lowers costs
Instituationalisation
The relationship norms are developed which establishes the patterns of rewards/costs for each partner
Give an issue with SET
↳ It is a Western theory focusing on western relationships. In an individualist culture, we make decisions based on whatever make us happy. However in a collectivist culture, you decide on what is best for the group as a whole
What is Equity theory?
An extension of the SET
It’s central assumption is that people strive to achieve fairness in their relationships and feel distressed if they percieve unfairness
How may somebody who is over-benefitting from a relationship feel?
Overbenefitting likely makes them feel guilt, shame + discomfort
↳ e.g always being bought gifts
How may someone who is under-benefitting from a relationship feel?
Underbenefitting likely makes them feel anger, hostility + resentful
↳ always planning + organising dates, buying gifts + nor recieving anything back
Explain research into equity theory
↳ Surveyed hundreds of married couples of all ages, finding that in child-rearing years, wives felt under-benefitted and husbands felt over benefitted
During the honeymoon period and empty nest stages, both husbands + wives reported equity
T/F: Equity means equality
False
Why might people still feel their relationship is equitable despite not being equal?
As long as there is a restoration of percieved equity, which means the partners do not have to contribute the same amount - only that they must contribute fairly
Give research critiscism of equity theory
↳ In communal relationships (between lovers & friends) there is less concern with equity, based on the belief things will balanve out eventuallu
Give an issue with Equity Theory
Culture Bias
↳ In some countries, the perception of fairness is skewed so one partner (often the male) dominates + controls the relationship
What is the Investment Model?
Rusbult (1980)
↳ Suggests that based on 3 factors, we decide whether we want to persist in relationships or not
Satisfaction Levels
Investment Size
Quality of Alternatives
What is meant by Satisfaction Level?
Positive/Negative emotions experienced in a relationship
↳ If we feel one partner is not fulfilling our compassionate, domestic or sexual needs we may leave
What is meant by Quality of Alternatives?
Percieving a more attractive alternate/ better option, may lead the partner to consider whether they are getting the fairest deal
What is meant by Investment Size?
Rusbult suggested that anything a person has ‘invested’ in a relationship (that will be lost if they leave it), is considered when deciding whether to remain in a relationship
What two types of investment are there?
Extrinsic - Children, Mutual Friends
Intrinsic - money, energy, time
Low Satisfaction level, High QOA and Low Investment Size leads to….
More likely to leave
High Satisfaction level, Low QOA and High Investment Size leads to….
More likely to Stay
Give research support for the investment model of relationship
Le & Agnew (2003)
↳ Conducted a meta-analysis of 53 studies from 5 countries
Across all studies, the correlation between commitment & satisfaction were strong
Give an issue with the investment model
Culture Bias
↳ Cultures where divorce is prohibited or women specifically are unable to make the decision to leave or stay makes Investment Model irrelevant
Explain Relationship Breakdown
↳ Suggest relationship breakdown occurs in a series of phases, meaning when the threshold of of one is breached, the next occurs
What are the 4 stages of relationship breakdown?
Intra-Psychic
Dyadic
Social
Grave-Dressing
What is the Intra-Psychic Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
A consideration of whether one might be better off out of the relationship.
↳ Threshold: “I’d be justified in withdrawing”
What is the Dyadic Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
Individuals confront their partners and disciss the future of the relationship.
↳ Threshold: “I mean it”
What is the Social Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
Dissatisfaction is no longe rprivate as friends and family are informed - this makes it more difficult for reconcilliation. This is also the end of the relationship
↳ Threshold: “It’s now inevitable”
What is the Grave-Dressing Phase of Relationship Breakdown?
Partners attempt to justify their action, as each wishes to present themselves in a good light
Give research support for Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown
Explains how couples can stay together even if they have doubts about the relationship
↳ This shows breakdown is not inevitable and the model isn’t deterministic
Give research criticism of Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown
Doesn’t recognise the possibility of personal growth following relationship breakdown
Give an issue with Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown
Culture Bias
↳ In cultures where breakup/divorce isn’t allowed, this is not applicable
What is the Hyperpersonal Model?
Walther (2011)
↳ Self-Disclosure in online relationships happens earlier than in face-to-face ones
Relationships become more intense + intimate quicker
They also end quicker
What is meant by selective self presentation?
People can edit their responses to make themselves seem more positive
What is the Reduced Cues Theory?
Sproull + Kiesler (1986)
↳ Due to less cues (Body Language, subtle facial expressions), online relationships are less open and less honest
This makes CMC more agressive + reduces the likelihood of intimate SD
What is gating?
A gate is a obstacle that could interfere with the developmenmt of a relationship
Give research which shows the correlation between gating and CMC
McKenna + Bargh (1999)
↳ Absence of Gates means that there are less barriers to forming intimate relationships with people online
People who lack confidence may use the extra time to consider their responses more carefully
People who are unattractive are able to choose an edited piucture or avatar of themselves
Give research support for the absence of gating increasing relationship oppurtunities
Baker + Oswald (2010)
↳ 207 male and female ppts to complete a questionairre
They were asked to score shyness, internet use + quality of friendships
Those with high shyness scores + internet use, often had a high correlation w/ quality of friendships
Give a criticism of research into virtual relationships
Assumes all online relationships are formed solely online
↳ A majority meet FtF after several online interactions
Give research support for virtual relationships
McKenna (2000)
↳ Surveyed 568 internet users who’d formed online relationships
57% had deepened the intimacy level of their relationship
70% lasted 2 years or more compared to 50% of FtF relationships
Give an issue with Virtual Relationships
Culture Bias
↳ Nakanishi (1986) found that Japanes women preffered lower levels of SD in close relationships. This shows that virtul relationships vary dependong on the cultural context.
What is a parasocial relationship?
Relationship (often with a celebrity) which is opn-sided
↳ The target individual is unaware of the existence of the person who made the relationship
What factors increase the likelihood of a parasocial relationship forming?
If the object of affection is attractive
If they are seen to be similar to us
If the viewer is female
If the viewer is lonely + shy
What two theories explain the nature of parasocial relationships?
absorptioon-Addiction Model
Attachment Theory Explanation
What is The Attachment Theory of explanation for parasocial relationships?
Weiss (1991) states that TV personalities exhibit the 3fundamental propoerties of a real adult relationships:
Proximity Seeking
Secure Base
Protest at Disruption
Give research support for the Attachment Theory Explanation
Cole & Leets (1999)
↳ Individuals with an insecure-resistant primary attachment were most likely to develop parasocial relationships
Summarise the research of Cole & Leets
↳ conducted a meta-analysis of 24 studies on the effects of peer support on academic achievement, self-esteem, and social skills.
Peer support had a positive impact on all three outcomes.
The strongest effect was observed on academic achievement.
The study suggests that peer support programs can be an effective way to improve academic and social outcomes for students.
What is the Absorption Addiction Model?
Parasocial relationships form as the result of life defieciencies such as lack of real relationships, loneliness + shyness
What scale is used to measure level of PSR?
Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
Outline the 3 levels in the process of forming celebrity-based PSR’s
Giles & Maltby (2006)
Entertainment-Social
Intense-Personal
Borderline-Patholological
What is the Intense-Personal level?
Intense compulsive feelings towards the celebrity (absorption)
What is the Entertainment-Social level?
Celebrity is a source of of gossip or interaction
What is the Borderline-Pathological level?
Uncontrollable behaviours or actions as a result of their PSR (addiction)
Give support for the Absorption Addiction model
Maltby (2001) supports the Absorption Addiction model.
Individuals with high absorption scores are more likely to experience altered states of consciousness.
Absorption can lead to addictive behaviors as individuals seek to maintain pleasurable experiences.
Maltby's research suggests that absorption is a key factor in understanding addictive behaviors.
Give an issue with explanations of parasocial relationships
Culture Bias
↳ Parasocial Relationships are often Western and only generalisable to Western Cultures
Cultures w/o media access don’t have exposure to PSR
However some behaviours have been shown to be consistent across cultures
Note 
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