1. French Revolution

First Estate

Clergy; the Roman Catholic Church and its members, including priests and bishops; owned about 10% of the land and paid no direct taxes.

Second Estate

Nobility; included aristocrats and landowners; enjoyed privileges such as tax exemptions and held high positions in government and the military.

Third Estate

Commoners; the vast majority of the population, including peasants, artisans, and bourgeoisie; burdened with heavy taxes and had little political power.

Clergy

Members of the First Estate; religious leaders who held significant influence and wealth in pre-revolutionary France.

Sans-Culottes

Working-class Parisians who wore long trousers instead of knee breeches; radical revolutionaries who played a key role in the French Revolution.

Bourgeoisie

Middle class; included merchants, professionals, and industrialists; sought political power and were inspired by Enlightenment ideas.

Inflation

Economic condition characterized by rising prices; contributed to the financial hardship of the Third Estate.

American Revolution and Seven Years War

Conflicts that drained French finances; France's involvement in these wars significantly increased national debt.

Tithes

Taxes paid to the Church; typically one-tenth of a person's income; a financial burden on the Third Estate.

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority; inspired revolutionary ideas in France.

Locke

Philosopher who argued for natural rights and the social contract; his ideas influenced revolutionary thought.

Montesquieu

Philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers in government; ideas were incorporated into revolutionary reforms.

Voltaire

Philosopher known for his criticism of the Church and advocacy for freedom of speech and religion.

Rousseau

Philosopher who believed in the general will and popular sovereignty; his ideas influenced revolutionary leaders.

Hobbes

Philosopher who believed in absolute monarchy as the best form of government; his ideas contrasted with revolutionary ideals.

Louis XVI

King of France during the Revolution; his inability to resolve financial crises and political unrest led to his downfall.

Marie Antoinette

Queen of France; her extravagant spending and foreign origins made her unpopular among the French people.

Estates-General

Assembly representing the three estates; convened in 1789 to address the financial crisis; its failure led to the Revolution.

Vote by Order

Voting system in the Estates-General where each estate had one vote; disadvantaged the Third Estate, which was larger in population.

Old Regime

The political and social system in France before the Revolution; characterized by absolute monarchy and feudal privileges.

Abbé Sieyès

Clergyman and political writer; authored "What is the Third Estate?" and supported the National Assembly.

Tennis Court Oath

June 20, 1789; Third Estate vowed not to separate until a new constitution was established; a pivotal moment in the Revolution.

Storming of the Bastille

July 14, 1789; Parisians attacked the Bastille prison, symbolizing the uprising against the monarchy.

Great Fear

Summer 1789; widespread panic and peasant revolts in the countryside; led to the abolition of feudal privileges.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

August 1789; proclaimed equal rights for all men; inspired by Enlightenment principles.

“March on Versailles”

October 1789; women marched to Versailles demanding bread and the king's return to Paris; marked a shift in revolutionary power.

Limited Monarchy

Constitutional monarchy established in 1791; limited the king's powers and established a legislative assembly.

Departments

Administrative divisions created by the National Assembly; replaced the old provinces to decentralize government.

“Flight to Varennes”

June 1791; King Louis XVI and his family attempted to escape Paris but were caught, undermining his authority.

Tuileries

Palace in Paris where the royal family was imprisoned after their return from Varennes; later stormed by revolutionaries.

Legislative Assembly

Constitutional body formed in 1791; replaced the National Assembly; faced challenges in governing during revolutionary turmoil.

Swiss Guard

Elite soldiers who protected the royal family; massacred during the storming of the Tuileries in 1792.

National Convention

Assembly that governed France from 1792; abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.

Jacobins

Radical political group led by Robespierre; played a key role in the Reign of Terror.

Girondists

Moderate political group; opposed the radical measures of the Jacobins; eventually purged during the Revolution.

Monarchists

Supporters of the monarchy; sought to restore the king's authority during the Revolution.

Radical, Moderate, Conservative

Political spectrum; radicals sought immediate and extensive change, moderates favored gradual reform, conservatives sought to preserve traditional institutions.

National Convention

Assembly that governed France from 1792; abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.

Republic

Form of government without a monarchy; established in France after the fall of the monarchy.

Committee of Public Safety

Established in 1793; led by Robespierre; oversaw the Reign of Terror to protect the revolution.

Danton

Revolutionary leader; initially a member of the Committee of Public Safety; executed during the Reign of Terror.

Robespierre

Leader of the Committee of Public Safety; his radical policies led to the Reign of Terror and his own execution.

Marat

Radical journalist; advocated for violence against enemies of the revolution; assassinated in 1793.

Republic of Virtue

Robespierre's vision of a society based on civic virtue and revolutionary ideals; led to authoritarian measures.

Temple of Reason

Secular temple established during the Revolution; symbolized the dechristianization of France.

Metric System

Decimal-based system of measurement; adopted during the Revolution to standardize measurements.

Reign of Terror

Period from 1793 to 1794; marked by mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution.

White Terror

Period following the Reign of Terror; marked by reprisals against former revolutionaries.

Directory

Five-member executive body established in 1795; faced corruption and inefficiency.

House of Elders and House of 500

Legislative bodies under the Directory; faced challenges in governance and were eventually overthrown.

“Whiff of Grapeshot”

Napoleon's use of artillery to disperse royalist uprisings; solidified his reputation as a strong leader.

Napoleon

Military leader who rose to prominence during the Revolution; became Emperor of France.

Toulon

Port city seized by British forces in 1793; Napoleon's successful recapture marked his rise to fame.

Italian Campaign

Series of military campaigns in Italy; Napoleon achieved significant victories, enhancing his reputation.

Egyptian Campaign

1798 military expedition to Egypt; although strategically unsuccessful, it bolstered Napoleon's image.

Coup D’etat

Sudden overthrow of the government; Napoleon's coup in 1799 ended the Revolution and led to his rule.

Plebiscite

Direct vote by the people; used by Napoleon to legitimize his authority.

Consul

Title held by Napoleon after his coup; later became Emperor; held supreme power in France.

Napoleonic Code

Set of civil laws established by Napoleon; influenced legal systems worldwide.

Concordat

Agreement between Napoleon and the Pope; restored some Church authority in France.

Promotion by merit

Policy of rewarding individuals based on ability; implemented by Napoleon in military and government.

Lycees

Public schools established by Napoleon; aimed at creating an educated bureaucracy.

Trafalgar

Naval battle in 1805; British victory over France; thwarted Napoleon's plans for invasion.

Continental System

Economic blockade aimed at weakening Britain; ultimately unsuccessful and harmful to France.

Peninsular War

Conflict in Spain and Portugal; French forces faced resistance, leading to costly and prolonged war.

Russian Campaign

1812 invasion of Russia; disastrous retreat led to significant losses for Napoleon.

Leipzig

Battle in 1813; coalition forces defeated Napoleon; marked the beginning of his downfall.

Elba

Island where Napoleon was exiled after his first abdication in 1814.

Hundred Days

Period in 1815 when Napoleon returned to power; ended with his defeat at Waterloo.

Waterloo

Battle in 1815; final defeat of Napoleon; led to his second abdication and exile.

St. Helena

Island in the South Atlantic; Napoleon's place of exile after his final defeat.

Congress of Vienna

1814–1815 conference; aimed at restoring European stability after Napoleon's defeat.

Metternich

Austrian diplomat; led the Congress of Vienna; sought to restore conservative order in Europe.

Balance of Power

Principle aimed at preventing any one nation from dominating Europe; central to the Congress of Vienna.

Liberalism

Political ideology advocating for individual rights and constitutional government; challenged traditional monarchies.

Nationalism

Political ideology emphasizing national identity and self-governance; influenced revolutionary movements.

Concert of Europe

System of alliances established after the Congress of Vienna; aimed at maintaining European peace and stability.