Cell Biology For Separate Science

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The genetic material in a plant and animal cell is found in the

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Biology

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1

The genetic material in a plant and animal cell is found in the

Nucleus

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2

Plant and animal cells both have

A nucleus, a cell membrane and cytoplasm

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3

Bacterial cells are also known as

Prokaryotic cells

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4

Plant and animal cells are also known as

Eukaryotic cells

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5

What is the size of bacterial cells compared to eukaryotic cells

Bacterial cells are smalle

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6

Bacterial cells have small rings of DNA called

Plasmids

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7

What is different about the genetic material in bacterial cells compared to animal cells?

It is not enclosed in a nucleus

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8

What material is the cell wall of plant and algal cells made from?

Cellulose

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9

What parts of a plant cell are not found in animal cells

Chloroplasts Permanent vacuole

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10

What is found in the permanent vacuole of a plant cell

Cell sap

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11

What is the function of the nucleus?

Controls the activities of the cell. It is where the genetic material is found

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12

What is the function of the cytoplasm?

A liquid gel where most chemical reactions take place

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13

What is the function of the cell membrane?

Controls the passage of substances into and out of the cell

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14

What is the function of the mitochondria?

Where aerobic respiration takes place, releasing energy for the cell

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15

What is the function of the ribosomes?

Where protein synthesis takes place

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16

What is the function of the chloroplasts?

Contain chlorophyll Chlorophyll absorbs light so the plant can make food by photosynthesis

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17

What is the function of the permanent vacuole?

Important for keeping the cells rigid to support the plant

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18

What is the function of the cell wall?

Made of cellulose which helps strengthen the cell and provides support

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19

What is the function of the plasmids?

Where some of the genetic material is found in bacterial cells

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20

What type of microscope would you use to observer ribosomes?

Electron microscope

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21

Give a specialisation of a sperm cell

A large nucleus containing genetic information A long tail to assist with movement The mid-section is full of mitochondria to transfer energy for movement

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22

Give a specialisation of a nerve cell

A long axon to carry information over long distances Numerous dendrites to pass information to neighbouring nerve cells

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23

Give a specialisation of a muscle cell

Contain mitochondria to transfer the energy needed for contracting

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24

Give a specialisation of a root hair cell

Root Hair increases the surface area for efficient water uptake Large permanent vacuole to maintain water potential

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25

Give a specialisation of a xylem cell

Lignin builds up in the cell wall increasing the strength of the xylem allowing them to withstand the water pressure The Xylem cells die forming long hollow tubes that allow water move with little resistance up the plant

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26

Give a specialisation of a phloem cell

Cell walls between neighbouring cells breaks down to form sieve plates that allow water to move freely Phloem cells have relatively few organelles but are kept alive by companion cells

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27

When do most types of animal cells differentiate?

At an early stage

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28

What is different about when most type of plant and animal cells differentiate?

Many types of plant cells retain the ability to differentiate throughout life

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29

In mature animals what is cell division for?

Repair and Replacement

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30

What do we call a cell that has differentiated?

A specialised cell

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31

What is the definition for magnification?

How many times bigger an object appears

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32

What is the definition for resolution?

The ability to distinguish between two separate points

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33

Which has a higher resolving power? An electron or light microscope

Electron microscope

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34

Why are electron microscopes more useful

They can study cells in much finer detail and see more sub-cellular structures

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35

What formula links magnification, size of image and size of real object

Magnification = Size of image/Size of real object

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36

Which type of microscope has a higher magnification

Electron microscope

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37

What does the nucleus of a cell contain?

Genetic Information / Chromosomes

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38

What are chromosomes made from?

DNA molecules

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39

In body cells how are the chromosomes normally found?

In pairs

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40

Cells divide in a series of stages. What is this called?

The cell cycle

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41

What happens in the first stage of the cell cycle?

The number of sub-cellular structures increases The DNA replicates The cell increases in mass

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42

What happens in the second stage of the cell cycle?

Mitosis occurs The chromosomes are pulled to each end of the cell The nucleus divides

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43

What happens in the third stage of the cell cycle?

The cytoplasm and cell membrane divide to form two identical cells

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44

What is mitosis important for?

Growth and development

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45

How many cells are produced in mitosis?

2

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46

What are the cells produced in mitosis like?

Identical

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47

What is a stem cell?

An undifferentiated cell of an organism which can become other types of cell

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48

Where are the two main sources of human stem cells?

Embryos Adult Bone Marrow

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49

In which type of plant tissue do you find cells that can differentiate into any type of plant cell?

Meristem

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50

What conditions could treatment with stem cells help?

Diabetes and Paralysis

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51

What is produced in therapeutic cloning?

An embryo with the same genes as the patient

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52

What is the advantage of using stem cells from embryos for medical treatment?

They will not be rejected from the patient

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53

What are the risks of using stem cells?

The transfer of viral infections

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54

What can the stem cells from meristems in plants be used for?

To produce clones of plants quickly and economically

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55

How can rare species of plants benefit from meristem tissue?

Rare species can be cloned to protect from extinction

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56

How can crop plants benefit from meristem tissue?

Crop plants with special features such as disease resistance can be cloned to produce large numbers of identical plants for farmers

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57

What is the definition of diffusion?

The movement of molecules down a concentration gradient from a higher to a lower concentration

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58

What substances may be transported into animal cells?

Oxygen

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59

What substance my be transported out of animal cells?

Carbon dioxide, Urea

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60

Which factors affect the rate of diffusion?

The difference in concentration The temperature The surface area of the membrane

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61

What is the surface area : volume ratio like in a single celled organism?

High

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62

How are the small intestines adapted as exchange surfaces

Villi to increase the surface area

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63

How are the lungs adapted as exchange surfaces?

Alveoli to increase the surface area Lots of capillaries for efficient exchange Thin walls to provide a short pathway

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64

How are gills in fish adapted as exchange surfaces?

Excellent blood supply Large surface area

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65

How are roots adapted as exchange surfaces?

Large surface area

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66

What increases the effectiveness of an exchange surface?

Large surface area Thin membrane for short diffusion pathway Efficient blood supply (animals) Ventilated (Animals for gaseous exchange)

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67

What moves via osmosis?

Water

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68

What is the definition of osmosis?

The diffusion of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane

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69

What does osmosis require for it to occur?

Partially permeable membrane

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70

What is the definition of active transport?

Active transport moves substances from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient)

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71

What does active transport require?

Energy from respiration

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72

Where does active transport occur in plants?

Active transport occurs in the plant root hairs, allowing mineral ions to be absorbed from very dilute solutions in the soil

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73

Why do plants require ions?

Healthy growth

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74

Where does active transport take place in humans?

It allows sugar molecules to be absorbed from low concentrations in the gut into the blood

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75

Why do humans require sugar molecules?

Cellular respiration

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76

Where does the energy in active transport come from?

Respiration

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77

What do we call the process in which bacteria reproduce?

Binary fission

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78

How often will bacteria reproduce?

Once every 20 minutes

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79

When will bacteria reproduce?

Enough nutrients and suitable temperature

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80

Where can bacteria grow?

Nutrient broth or as colonies on an agar plate

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81

At what temperature should cultures be incubated at?

25oC

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82

What do we use to transfer microorganisms to the media?

Inoculating loops

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83

How do you sterilise the inoculating loop?

Passing through a flame

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84

How should the Petri dish be secured?

With adhesive tape on the side and stored upside down

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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
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