Lecture Review Flashcards: English, Logic, Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science

70 vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms across English, Logic, Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science sections of the lecture notes.

Data Science

An interdisciplinary field that uses domain expertise, programming, mathematics, and statistics to extract insights from data for decision-making.

Insight

Deep understanding of a situation or problem; in data science, the meaningful information drawn from data analysis.

Domain (field)

A specific area of knowledge or activity in which data science methods are applied.

Structured Data

Information organized in predefined models such as tables, making it easy to search and analyze.

Unstructured Data

Information without a predefined format (e.g., text, images) that requires advanced techniques to analyze.

Analytical (thinker)

A person who makes decisions based on systematic examination of data and evidence.

Data-driven

Guided by data and empirical evidence rather than intuition or opinion.

Computation

The act of calculating or processing information, often by a computer.

Accommodate

To provide with something needed or desired; to adapt or adjust.

Intelligence

The ability to learn, understand, and apply knowledge and skills.

Extract (verb)

To remove or obtain something, especially information or substance, from a larger whole.

Chaotic

Completely disordered or unpredictable, the opposite of structured.

Tautology (logic)

A compound statement that is always true regardless of the truth values of its components (e.g., p ∨ ¬p).

Contrapositive

The statement formed by negating and reversing the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional (If not Q, then not P).

Predicate Logic

Formal logic using quantifiers and predicates to express statements about objects and their properties.

Vector

A quantity having both magnitude and direction, represented by an ordered set of components.

Dot Product

Algebraic operation that multiplies two vectors and returns a scalar equal to the sum of component-wise products.

Determinant

A scalar value calculated from a square matrix that indicates whether the matrix is invertible and other properties.

Lattice (algebra)

A set with two binary operations (join ∨ and meet ∧) that are commutative, associative, and satisfy absorption laws.

Rank (matrix)

The maximum number of linearly independent rows or columns in a matrix.

Derivative

The instantaneous rate of change of a function with respect to its variable.

Circle (geometry)

The set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed center point.

Direction Ratios

Three proportional numbers that describe the orientation of a line in 3-D space.

Newton-Raphson Method

Iterative numerical technique using tangents to approximate roots of an equation.

Combination (nCr)

A selection of items where order does not matter, calculated as n!⁄(r!(n−r)!).

Eigenvalues

Scalars λ such that Ax = λx for some non-zero vector x in a square matrix A.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Statistic that quantifies strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables (−1 to 1).

Variance

Average of the squared deviations of data points from their mean; measures dispersion.

Covariance

Measure of how two variables vary together; sign indicates direction of linear relationship.

Histogram

Graphical display of the distribution of a continuous variable using adjacent bars.

Simple Random Sampling

Sampling method where every possible sample of size n has an equal chance of selection.

Binomial Distribution

Discrete distribution of the number of successes in a fixed number of independent Bernoulli trials.

Interquartile Range (IQR)

Measure of spread defined as the difference between the third (Q3) and first (Q1) quartiles.

Type I Error

Incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis in hypothesis testing.

Standard Deviation

Square root of variance; indicates average distance of data from the mean.

Positively Skewed Distribution

A distribution with a long right tail where mean > median > mode.

Confidence Interval

Range of values that likely contains the true population parameter with a given confidence level (e.g., 95%).

t-test

Statistical test comparing means of two groups when population standard deviations are unknown.

Expected Value

Long-run average of a random variable, calculated as Σx·P(x).

Categorical Variable

Variable that represents qualitative characteristics (e.g., gender, type).

Memoryless Property

Characteristic of the exponential distribution where future probability does not depend on past events.

Standard Error

Estimate of the variability of a sample statistic, often the mean, across samples.

Degrees of Freedom

Number of independent values that can vary in a statistical calculation (e.g., n – 1 for a sample mean).

Stack

Linear data structure following Last-In, First-Out (LIFO) principle.

Queue

Linear data structure following First-In, First-Out (FIFO) principle.

Scheduler

Operating-system component that allocates CPU time to processes.

Binary Search

Algorithm that finds an item in a sorted array by repeatedly halving the search interval; O(log n) time.

Dynamic Programming

Algorithmic technique that solves problems by storing solutions to overlapping subproblems to avoid recomputation.

SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, standard protocol for sending email messages.

Tuple

Single row in a relational database table.

Encapsulation

OOP principle of hiding internal state and exposing functionality through methods.

MongoDB

Document-oriented NoSQL database that stores data in flexible JSON-like documents.

Deque

Double-ended queue supporting insertion and deletion at both front and rear ends.

Quick Sort

Divide-and-conquer sorting algorithm with average-case time complexity O(n log n).

Waterfall Model

Sequential software development model progressing through distinct phases from requirements to maintenance.

TCP

Transmission Control Protocol that provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data over the internet.

UNIQUE Constraint

Database rule that ensures all values in a column are distinct.

Switch (networking)

Data-link-layer device that forwards frames within a local area network using MAC addresses.

Second Normal Form (2NF)

Database normalization stage that eliminates partial functional dependencies in a table with a composite primary key.

Base Case (recursion)

Condition that stops further recursive calls and starts unwinding the recursion.

Bluetooth

Short-range wireless communication technology for devices like phones, headphones, and peripherals.

Multitasking

Operating-system capability to run multiple applications seemingly simultaneously.

Sprint (Agile)

Fixed-length iteration in Agile methodology during which a set of work is completed and reviewed.

Star Topology

Network layout where all devices connect to a central hub or switch.

Coupling (software)

Measure of how many other modules a given software module depends on; lower is better for maintainability.