AP Psych 2nd Semester

Scientific Method

A systematic process used for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge through observation and experimentation.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables.

Operational Definition

A clear and specific description of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study.

Qualitative Data

Non-numeric information typically gathered through interviews, open-ended surveys, or observations.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically.

Generalizability

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to or extended to other populations.

Peer Review

The process used to evaluate the quality, validity, and relevance of a research study before publication.

Replication

The ability to repeat an investigation and obtain the same or similar results to validate findings.

Experimental Group

The group of participants who receive the treatment or independent variable being tested.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison with the experimental group.

Random Assignment

The process of randomly placing participants into either the experimental or control group to ensure similarity.

Sampling Bias

Errors in sampling that result when the sample is not representative of the population.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental design where both the participants and researchers do not know who is in the experimental or control groups.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon in which participants' expectations about a treatment can influence their experiences or outcomes.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1.

Statistical Significance

A measure used to determine whether the results in a study are unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Effect Size

A statistical measure that quantifies the strength or magnitude of a relationship, difference, or effect observed in a study.

Normal Distribution

A probability distribution that is symmetric around the mean, showing that data near the mean are more frequent in occurrence than data far from the mean.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two different modes or peaks, indicating two common values or ranges in the data.

Skewed Distribution

A distribution that is not symmetrical and has tails that are unequal on either side of the mean.

Meta-Analysis

A research method that combines the results of multiple studies on a specific topic to draw more reliable conclusions.

Informed Consent

The process of providing potential participants with enough information about a study to enable them to voluntarily choose whether to participate.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of a single individual or group, often used to explore rare or unique situations.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving the observation of behavior in its natural setting without intervention.

Survey Bias

Errors or distortions in survey results caused by factors influencing how participants respond to questions.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, calculated by summing them and dividing by the count of numbers.

Median

The middle value in a data set when arranged in ascending order.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variability that indicates the average distance of each data point from the mean.

Regression to the Mean

The phenomenon whereby extreme scores on a particular test tend to move closer to the average upon retesting.

Single Blind

A single-blind study is an experimental design where the participants do not know which group they are in (i.e., whether they are receiving the treatment, in a control group or getting a placebo), but the researchers know which participants are in which group. This helps prevent participants' expectations or biases from affecting the results of the study.

Representative Sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger group, ensuring that the findings from the sample can be generalized to the population as a whole.

Convenience Sample

A type of non-probability sampling where participants are selected based on their availability and willingness to participate, which may lead to biased results.

Protection in Ethical Requirements in Psychology

The principle of ensuring that participants in psychological studies are treated with respect, that their rights are upheld, and that they are safeguarded from harm or discomfort throughout the research process.

Personality

A unique and lasting set of traits, behaviors, and emotional patterns that shape how a person responds to life.

Trait Theory

A psychological approach that emphasizes the importance of stable and enduring traits in shaping an individual's behavior.

Emotions

A body and mind response to an elicitor, consisting of physiological reactions, expressive behaviors, and conscious experiences.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

A theory that suggests positive emotions expand our thinking and resources, fostering well-being and resilience.

Display Rules

Cultural norms that dictate how, when, and where emotions should be expressed.

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Self-Determination Theory

A theory positing that humans are motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory proposing that humans fulfill basic needs before moving on to higher-level needs.

Implicit Attitude

A negative attitude that one is not consciously aware of, often leading to biased behavior.

Stereotype

A generalized concept about a group of people, which can lead to cognitive shortcuts in judgment.

Arousal Theory

The theory that explains motivation in terms of seeking an optimal level of arousal for performance.

Cognition → Arousal & Emotion

The sequence where cognitive interpretation of a situation leads to both physiological arousal and emotional response.

Emotional Eating

The practice of consuming food in response to emotions rather than hunger.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

Motivational Conflicts Theory

The study of how people make decisions when faced with competing motivations.

Elicitors

Stimuli or events that evoke emotional responses or behaviors, which can be biologically based or socially determined.

Display Rules

Cultural norms that dictate how emotions should be expressed in social contexts, which vary across cultures.

Shame (Culturally Specific Elicitor)

An elicitor used to enforce social norms and conformity, often prevalent in collectivist cultures that emphasize group cohesion.

Pride (Culturally Specific Elicitor)

An elicitor that reinforces social values and achievements, particularly prominent in individualistic cultures.

Public Praise (Culturally Specific Elicitor)

An elicitor that reinforces positive behaviors and social bonds through public acknowledgment, increasing motivation.

Seven Theories of Motivation

1. Drive Reduction Theory, 2. Arousal Theory, 3. Incentive Theory, 4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 5. Self-Determination Theory, 6. Goal-Setting Theory, 7. Expectancy Theory.

Thrill Seeking

The pursuit of exciting, risky, or adventurous activities, motivated by the desire for stimulation and novel experiences.

Disinhibition

A decrease in restraint or inhibition that increases risk-taking behaviors, often influenced by social contexts or substances.

Boredom Susceptibility

The tendency to become easily bored, motivating individuals to seek new experiences and stimulation.

Approach-Approach Conflict

A conflict arising from choosing between two appealing outcomes.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

A conflict arising from choosing between two undesirable outcomes.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

A conflict arising when a single goal has both positive and negative aspects.

Drive Reduction Theory

The theory stating that motivation arises from biological needs creating drives that individuals are motivated to satisfy.

Implicit Attitudes

Automatic, unconscious evaluations or feelings towards a person, object, or concept that can influence behavior.

Just World Phenomenon

The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, leading to rationalization of circumstances based on perceived morality.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are.

In-Group Bias

Preferential treatment towards members of one's own group, resulting in favoritism.

Ethnocentrism

The belief in the superiority of one's own culture, leading to evaluation of other cultures by one's own standards.

Instinct Theory

Instinct theory suggests that certain behaviors are driven by innate instincts, which are hardwired biological responses. These instincts guide actions essential for survival and reproduction, such as eating, mating, and nurturing. While the theory highlights the role of genetic predisposition in behavior, it has been critiqued for oversimplifying human actions and not accounting for learned behaviors.

Associative Learning

a learning principle that involves making connections between stimuli and responses.

Cognitive Learning

a type of learning that involves mental processes and the acquisition of knowledge through thought, experience, and senses.

Stimulus

is any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning.

Operant Conditioning

a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.

Law of Effect

behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement

any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Reinforcement Discrimination

the ability to differentiate between situations in which a particular behavior will be reinforced and those in which it will not.

Reinforcement Generalization

when a behavior that has been reinforced in one situation is more likely to be repeated in similar situations.

Punishment

any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

the addition of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Negative Reinforcement

the removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Positive Punishment

the addition of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Negative Punishment

the removal of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Adulthood

The stage of human development that typically ranges from ages 21 to 75+, characterized by various key components such as independence, love, work, and retirement.

Childhood Attachment Styles

Patterns of attachment formed during childhood that influence how adults create and maintain relationships.

Secure Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by a strong ability to form healthy relationships, trust, and emotional availability, seen in approximately 58% of adults.

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

An attachment style where individuals are self-reliant and emotionally guarded, often reluctant to seek comfort or express emotions.

Insecure Anxious Attachment

A style characterized by clinginess, neediness, and a constant fear of abandonment, resulting in a desire for reassurance in relationships.

Disorganized Attachment

An attachment pattern associated with mental health issues, where individuals want close relationships yet push others away due to fear or confusion.

Parenting Styles

Different approaches to raising children, including Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, and Neglectful, which can impact children's social skills and self-esteem.

Parallel Play

A stage of play where children play alongside each other without direct interaction.

Imaginary Audience

The belief held by adolescents that they are constantly being watched and judged by others, leading to heightened self-consciousness.

Personal Fable

The belief among adolescents that they are unique and invulnerable, often resulting in risky behaviors.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Stressful or traumatic events that occur during childhood, which can disrupt healthy development and attachment.

Collectivism vs. Individualism

A cultural perspective where Western societies emphasize independence and self-expression, while collectivist cultures focus on community and familial responsibilities.