PYSCH Flashcards

Definition 1 of Psychology

The science of mind and behavior.

Structuralism: Science of the Mind

An early school of thought in psychology that sought to understand the structures of the mind by identifying its basic elements.

1879- Structuralism: Science of the Mind (looks for elements of thought)

○ Wilhelm Wundt came up with the “Science of the Mind” (first lab for psychology)

○ Wilhelm taught Tichner who had his own view - Structuralism (content of conscious thought)

■ Thought of an apple (all the elements)

○ Titchener believed that thought had images with them, while other researchers believed they didn't

■ This made conflict which leads us to Watson (Behaviorism)

Behaviorism: Science of Behavior

1913: The scientific study of observable behavior, emphasizing the importance of environmental factors.

John Watson says we need psychology to be an observable science

Look at data objectively

Cognitivism: Science of Mind and Behavior

A theoretical perspective in psychology that focuses on the processes of the mind, including attention, perception, memory, and language.

• 1967: an arbitrary date for the beginning of Cognitivism: Ulric Neisser publishes his textbook cognitive pyschology, outlining the areas of study (e.g. attention, memory, perception, language) that had begun yielding to investigation in the last decade, and presenting a consensus on the new information processing view of the field that solidified its popularity and led to its rapid ascendance 

Definition 2 of Pyschology

The science of Experimental Epistemology

Epistemology: the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope.

Where do you get your knowledge from?

Nativism and Empiricism

How do you learn your knowledge?

Rationalism and Associationism

Nativism

The view that certain skills or abilities are hard-wired into the brain at birth. Goes with rationalism

Empiricism

The theory is that knowledge arises from experience and observation. Goes with associationism. You are born as a clean slate tabula rasa. Everything we know comes from our experience.

Rationalism

The philosophical belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge.

Associationism

A theory that suggests learning occurs by forming associations between experiences.

Definition 3 of Pyschology

the science of knowing and experiencing

Knowing

○ not just store the information

○ We understand it, we are aware of it → know how to behave

★ Experiencing:

○ Computer can’t experience things like we can - see color, listening

○ It is different from knowledge and information

■ Experiencing Salt:

● Can't tell someone about salt for them to have the same experience

as if they tasted salt

● Only can taste salt to experience it

○ Makes us motivated:

■ We are hungry and we are motivated to eat something we like (yummy

sandwich) because of the experience we had previously

Mind-Body Problem

conflict of whether the science of knowing and experiencing is a natural science

the philosophical question of how our mental experiences (thoughts, feelings, consciousness) relate to our physical brain and body, essentially asking how the mind, which is considered non-physical, interacts with the physical body and its processes; it explores whether these are two separate entities or different aspects of the same thing, and how they influence each other.

Dualism: Descartes

The belief that the universe consists of two interacting substances: the physical (body) and the non-physical (mind, soul, thought).

Materialism

The philosophical view that everything that exists is either made of matter or is dependent on matter for its existence. Materialism denies the existence of non-physical substances such as the mind or soul.

ex: a thought is apart of the physical world The electrical signal

is physical. The thoughts are electrical signals

Definition 4 of Pyschology

The science of things that move around on their own

For years: BCE- What is everything made of? Why do things happen?

○ Matter and motion (physics) was the main focus (even biology)

■ Physics (and biology) does not account for: animate motion (movement

without applying anything to it)- things moving around on their own

● Jumping, stepping to the side (behavior)

★ Psychology: does account for the animate motion (behavior)

○ Things that move around on their own: (continuum)

■ Humans, Chimps, Dogs, Bacteria, Not rocks

★ Things that move on their own:

○ Make up psychology:

■ Have goals, have knowledge of success of goals

■ Have perception

■ Able to learn environment (change behavior based on experience)

■ Have memory - records of experiences

○ These are all ideas of locomotion

Reflex

An automatic, stereotyped movement produced as a direct result of a stimulus. Occurs without thought from the frontal cortex

Steps in Reflex of the Knee Tap

1. Knee tap

2. Sensory neuron from muscle goes

up through the back of the spinal

cord

3. Signal goes to the brain (but not

involved)

4. Then goes to the muscle - motor

output (in the front)

5. Then you kick out your foot

Neuron

The basic building block of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and transmitting signals.

Cell body (soma)

contains the nucleus

Dendrites:

Receive input from the previous neuron (presynaptic neuron)( think of dendrites like a big hand grabbing/receiving something).

The branch-like structure of a neuron that receives signals from other neurons.

Axon

sends the signal AWAY from cell body to the next neuron (AP is sent down the axon) and typically ends at the axon terminals.

Myelin Sheath:

fatty material that insulates the axon for the information to pass faster and efficiently

Nodes of Ranvier

breaks in the myelin sheath (exchange of ions along the axon can happen here)

Axon terminals

where the neuron connects (with a gap in between) to another neuron to send signals

Multiple Sclerosis

a disease that affects the myelin sheath, leading to communication issues between the brain and the rest of the body.

Autoimmune disease where the Nervous System

treats myelin sheath as a foreign substance and

attacks it

● Demyelination occurs = not many action potentials

correctly fire

● This creates signals to have a harder time traveling or

happening at all

● This can make it hard for someone to walk, move

around, see, etc.

How does the neuron fire? step 1

1. Resting State: -70 mV

a. Na + ions are OUTSIDE the neuron

b. Fewer K+ ions and Cl- ions are inside the neuron

c. More negative ions inside the neuron and more

positive ions outside the neuron

i. This makes it MORE negative inside the

neuron than outside

1. -70mV

How does a neuron fire step 2?

2. Neuron is stimulated by other neuron (neurotransmitters)

a. Na+ ions start slowly going inside the neuron

b. -70 mV goes up and up and up then to -55 mV

i. -55mv is the threshold to allow the AP to

happen

how does a neuron fire step 3?

Depolarization occurs- this means the neuron becomes

more positive

● Na+ gates are opened once the threshold is reached

and Na+ rushes into the neuron

○ This makes it more positive inside the neuron at

+40 mV

○ Action potential is fired - Action Potential is all or

none (not a little excited or more excited)

how does a neuron fire step 4?

4. Repolarization/ hyperpolarization

● Potassium (K+) ions flood out the neuron because its

too positive

● This makes it more negative in the neuron

● Even overshoots the resting state (hyperpolarization

how does a neuron fire step 5?

Back to Resting State:

● Sodium - potassium pumps push potassium (K+) back

into the neuron and sodium (Na+) back out of the

neuron

○ More Na+ outside the cell making it positive

outside the cell

○ Less K+ inside the cell making it more negative

than the outside

■ -70mV

● Resting potential

Whole process last 1 millisecond

Action potential travels ______ the axon

down

Depolarizing at each part of

the axon

● Nodes of ranvier allow the

exchange of ions

● Travels at about 50 to 100

m/sec

Action Potential

A momentary reversal of membrane potential that serves as a signal for neuronal communication.

Synapse

The gap between two neurons, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals. Gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron

Vesicles

Small membrane-bound sacs that store and transport neurotransmitters within the neuron, releasing them into the synapse during neurotransmission. Vesicles are in the axonal buttons, which contain neurotransmitters. Vesicles releases neurotransmitters at AP!

Receptor Molecules - The lock

Located on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron. The neurotransmitters (the keys) land on the receptors and this opens ion gates for the Na+ to come into the neuron!!

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters are taken back up into the presynaptic neuron to be used again or broken down by enzymes, preventing prolonged signal transmission.

SSRI’s

inhibits the reuptake of serotonin (selective serotonin reuptake

inhibitors)

● Keeps the serotonin in the synapse to have more serotonin to use

● Less depressed = happier!! (lack of serotonin can create depression)

● “Antidepressant”

EPSP

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential

More likely to fire and action

potential in the postsynaptic

neuron

❖ Neurotransmitters can open the

Na+ channels to start coming in

to possibly start an action

potential

❖ Makes it more likely to fire

because it starts to get more

positive now (-65, -60, -50)

IPSP

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential

Less likely to fire an action

potential in the postsynaptic

neuron!

❖ Neurotransmitters can open the

gates of the K+ ions and have

them flood out of neuron

❖ Neurotransmitters can have Cl-

come into the neuron and Na+

leave the neuron as well

❖ Both makes the neuron less

likely to fire because it starts to

get more negative now (-71,-75,-

80)

Charles Sherrington

Discovered the existence of the synapse

➢ He came to the conclusion without looking at the

actual neuron with his dog experiment

Charles Sherrington’s Dog Experiment

Scratch the dog in an area and they itch

■ They stop scratching - this can mean there

is inhibition coming down from the brain -

he needs to stop this so...

■ he snips the spinal column - the dog now

has disinhibition (no inhibition from the

brain)

➢ Now: Sherrington stimulates:

■ One area repeatedly overtime and it

creates the reaction to scratch (temporal

summation)

■ Three areas and it all comes together to

create the reaction to scratch (spatial

summation)- therefore there must be one

area where they all come together = the

synapse

inhibition

you stop a behavior

disinhibition

stops your ability to stop a behavioror control impulses, leading to increased actions or responses.

Central Excitatory State

A state in which neuronal activity is heightened, leading to increased excitability and responsiveness of the nervous system.

Repeated stimulation

can lead to increased neuronal excitability and may enhance learning or memory.

Simultaneous stimulation

refers to the concurrent activation of multiple neurons or sensory inputs, which can lead to a combined effect on neuronal excitability and processing.

Reciprocal Inhibition

Flexing flexor muscle (showing off your biceps)-

contract

Inhibiting extensor

muscle

● Extending extensor muscles

(making arm long)- contract

○ Inhibiting flexor muscle

When one muscle is excited, it is inhibiting the other muscle

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic nervous system (muscles, senses=voluntary)

● Autonomic nervous

system (vital functions: heart rate, breathing, digestion, reproduction=

involuntary)

○ Sympathetic NS

○ Parasympathetic

NS

Neurotransmitter

Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Autonomic Nervous System

A component of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses. Emergency state (car crash) using all energy to survive can cause increased heart rate and inhibits the parasympathetic systems

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that promotes 'rest and digest' activities. This is the calm state feed and breed rest and digest. Relaxing allows for digestion and sexual reproduction. Slow heart rate and inhibits the sympathetic system

Parts of the Brain

Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain, and Cortex. These regions are responsible for various functions such as coordination, sensory processing, and higher cognitive functions.

Hindbrain

The lower part of the brain responsible for vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and balance. It includes structures like the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

medulla

A structure in the hindbrain that regulates vital autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate and blood circulation

Pons

A structure located in the hindbrain that acts as a bridge between different parts of the nervous system, facilitating communication and regulating functions such as sleep and arousal. Coordinates face expressions as well

Cerebellum:

A structure in the hindbrain that is responsible for coordination, balance, and fine motor skills. It also plays a role in cognitive functions such as attention and language. NOT IN CHARGE of movements.

Example of Cerebellum

Playing piano - helps the muscles work together

to make the movements happen

neuroplasticity

The other parts of the brain can take over functions of other parts of the brain. No cerebellum: other parts of the brain carry out functions of the cerebellum to make up for it being missing

Cat cut off by the mid brain only having hindbrain would be able to:

Cat can move its limbs (flail around)

○ Cat would not be able act

○ Cat would need the forebrain and midbrain to act and act with a purpose

Midbrain

A portion of the brain located between the forebrain and hindbrain, involved in functions such as vision, hearing, and motor control.

Superior Colliculus

(visual stimulus)- something happens in the corner of your eye, and you turn to

see what it is

Substantia Nigra

Nigra- manufactures dopamine (a neurotransmitter)

● Gets sent up to the forebrain (basal ganglia)

Cut the cats brain transected off the forebrain having the midbrain and hindbrain

Due to the Hindbrain and Midbrain being connected:

○ Cat would be able to act and put the movements together

○ Cat needs the midbrain to act (walk)

○ Midbrain- movements into acts, but has no purpose... YET (forebrain makes

the movements have purpose)

Forebrain

The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions, emotions, and voluntary actions. It includes structures such as the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia/ Thalamus/ Hypothalamus

Thalamus

sends sensory and motor information to the specific parts of the brain

Hypothalamus

controls responses to basic needs (motivation)

such as

■ Fight, flee, feed, sexual functioning (f**k (lol))

■ Regulates temperature (tells body to sweat if its too hot)

Rat problem for removing a hypothalamus of a Rat

never stops eating

Rat cold wire in hypothalamus pressing button example:

Rat pressing a panel in a cage- hot air comes down -

learns it gets warmer

○ Wire implanted into hypothalamus (cool the

wire and makes the hypothalamus cooler)

○ Rat presses the button for hot air because his

hypothalamus feels cold (voluntary)

Basal Ganglia

regulates muscle contractions for smooth

movements (voluntary movements)

■ “Keep the breaks on the movements”

■ Uses dopamine from substantia nigra

Parkinson’s Disease:

Substantia nigra cells dye off and cannot produce

dopamine

● Basal ganglia are not getting dopamine to work

● Symptoms: tremors, slow movements, reginity

(frozen in place)

Limbic System

memory (hippocampus) and emotion (amygdala)

Classical Conditioning:

Missing amygdala- do not get scared of blue

slide(that was paired with loud noise), but remember

why they should be scared

● Missing hippocampus- fear response of the blue

slide, but do not remember why they are scared

hippocampus

A brain structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation, critical for the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure, and plays a key role in emotional memory.

Cat Transected off the cortex of the cat

Due to the Hindbrain and Midbrain and Forebrain WITHOUT CORTEX:

○ Cat would be able to act and put the movements together with purpose

○ Cat needs the forebrain to act with purpose and goals ( because of the

hypothalamus

○ BUT it is clumsy because you do not have the fine motor control from the

cortex

Different types of conditioning and response

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Food

Unconditioned response (UR): Salivate

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell

Conditioned Response(CR): Salivate

Frontal Lobe

The part of the brain associated with reasoning, planning, and motor control.

Parietal Lobe

sense of touch

○ Somatosensory projection area

■ Sense of touch

■ On top of brain

Occipital Lobe

The region of the brain responsible for vision.

Temporal Lobe

The area of the brain involved in memory and language comprehension.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the two hemispheres (right and left)

● Communicates information from one hemisphere to

another

● Hemispheres control opposite side of the body

(contralateral)

○ Example:

■ My right hemisphere controls my left arms

moving up and down

Aphasia

A language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate.

•  left hemisphere (frontal or temporal) damage causes deficit in language function 

  • Damage to the language area is called aphasia wernicks or broca  

  • Left hempishere brain lesions 

Franz Joseph Gall Legitimate Discoveries

1) cortex as functioning tissue, not just protective

covering ("cortex" is literally "bark" or "skin")

● 2) commissures (or connecting pathways)

between brain hemispheres, other than the

already known corpus callosum

● 3) crossing of ascending nerve pathways from

spinal cord to contralateral hemispheres of the

brain

● 4) distribution of and distinction between grey

matter and white matter tracts (where grey matter

was recognized in the 20th century as mostly

neuron cell bodies doing information processing,

and white matter as mostly myelinated axons

sending signals over longer distances)

Phrenology

1) the brain is the material instrument through which the mind holds intercourse with the outer world

● 2) the mind entails a congerie [or jumbled collection] of discrete mental faculties each with its own specific center or organ

● 3) the size of each organ corresponds with the functional efficiency of each faculty

● 4) the development of the organ is reflected in the shape, size and

irregularities of the encompassing cranium.

Phineas Gage

A famous case study in psychology, Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury when a metal rod accidentally pierced his skull. This incident dramatically changed his personality and behavior, providing insights into the role of the frontal lobes in personality and social behavior.

Broca's Aphasia

A type of aphasia where a person finds it difficult to produce speech, but can understand language.

Left Hemisphere Damage

● Broca's Area Damage

● Cannot produce speech - it is

very difficult to speak

● Can comprehend

● Paul Broca identified Broca’s

area region (speech)

Wilder Penfield Findings

On the operating table: (patients do not feel pain on the cortex- patients were awake)

❏ Found specific regions of the body were in specific parts of the brain

❏ Drew the “little man” on the brain

❏ Why were there certain body parts bigger and smaller than others?

❏ Due to:

❏ amount of brain tissue devoted to controlling these specific areas

❏ Motor and somatosensory areas

❏ Hands are bigger: takes a lot of brain tissue to move your fingers/hands

❏ Face is bigger: takes a lot of brain tissue to move your face

Cortical Function

Left Hemisphere: Language function

❏ Broca's Area

❏ Wernicke's Area

❏ Right Hemisphere: spatial function

❏ Front part of the brain: expression,

creating plans, initiating actions

❏ Back part of the brain: receiving

information, perceptions, interpretations

Prefrontal Damage

lose ability to plan, no more moral reasoning, being sensitive to

sensitive topic, lose ability to initiate actions (Phineas Gage)

Apraxia:

inability to put movements together “not doing”

❏ Not able to organize the movements in a certain sequence

❏ How do I tie my shoe? How do I brush my teeth?

Agnosia

don't understand what you are perceiving “not knowing”

❏ Auditory agnosia: might not understand what kind of sound they heard

❏ Visual agnosia: might not know what your feet are - are the shoes my feet?

Neglect

damage to the right parietal lobe leads to entire neglect to the left side of

everything

❏ forget to shave the left side of face, forget to put jeans on the left leg

Wernicke's Aphasia

A type of aphasia characterized by the inability to understand speech, while the person can produce fluent but nonsensical speech.

Left Hemisphere Damage

● Wernicke's Area Damage

● Cannot comprehend speech-

they do not understand what is

being said to them

● Can produce speech (random

speech)

● Carl Wernicke identified

Wernicke's area region

(comprehension)

Frontal Lesions (Near Motor Cortex)

• Apraxia (inability to organize movements).

Occipital or Temporal Lesions

• Agnosia (inability to interpret or categorize sensory information).

Blindsight

• Ability to respond to visual stimuli despite blindness.

Likely due to the superior colliculus (midbrain structure processing simple visual information).

Damage to occipital cortex

Blindness, even if the optic nerve is intact.