ESPY 2130 Test 1

No Child left behind

• Unfair

  • Every state set their own test

  • Left teachers solely responsible for students success

• annual achievement tests in reading and math

• Must demonstrates AYP (progress) 

• Public report cards (compare with school and districts)

  • data made schools more transparent

• School choice (only to schools with room in same district)

ESSA

• Similar but focus is a little different

• Less punitive, returned more control to districts and states 

• Test scores still count but also graduation rates and at least one measure of school climate/safety, engagement

• Focus is on college and career ready

• In GA, we have Colleges and career readiness performance index (CRPI)

Educational Psychology

 discipline with its own theories, research methods, problems, and techniques

Descriptive studies

surveys , interviews samples of classroom activities (video, audio etc)

Common type of descriptive study

• Correlation Studies (what is the relation between 2 variables)

• Correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and direction of relationship between two events or measurements

Positive and Negative correlation

• Positive correlation = two factors increase or decrease together (height and weight)

• Negative correlation = increases in one, decreases in another

• Correlation does not equal causation

Experimental studies

• Cause and effect

• Induce changes and note results

• Create groups 

  • Randomly assign (equal change)

  • Quasi experimental 

    • Frequently used in educations 

    • Results of each group then compared 

Single-subject Experimental Design

• Determine effects of a particular therapy, teaching method, or other intervention 

• Baseline (A) 

• Intervention (B)

• Return to baseline(A)

• Reintroduce intevention (B)

• In the additional AB phase (not just AB but ABAB) can be used to show cause and effect

  • Not used in schools, more used in research

Clinical interviews and case studies

• Piaget used clinical interviews to understand children's thinking 

• Open ended questions

• Case studies 

• One person or situation in depth

Ethnography

• Studying naturally occurring events in the life of a group to understand the meaning to those involved

  • Also a variation where a participant does it– participation observation

Longitudinal Studies

• Studying objects over a period of time (monthes, years)

• But time consuming and expensive

Cross sectional studies

• Single point in time, several ages  

• Checking demographics of school in one point in time

Quant vs Qual Studies

• Qualitative studies (case studies, ethnographic studies) interviews, observations, transcripts, explore situations or people in depth, cant be complete objective 

• Qualitative studies (correlative, experimental) numbers, measurements, stats to examine relationships and differences between groups. Objectivity is point– look to gernalice to other ppl, setting etc

What is Culture?

• Knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of ppl and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment

• cultural group defined in terms of 

  • Geographical region

  • Nationality

  • race/ethnicity 

  • Gender

  • Social class

  • Religion 

    • Attitudes, values, traditions, language 

  • Key: wide variations between each group, don't over simplify 

Iceberg metaphor

• ⅓ visible signs of culture, the rest hidden and unknown

• visible : costumes, marriage traditions, laws

• Invisible: implicit, unstates, unconscious biases and beliefs

  • Rules for listening, conducting interpersonal relationships

• Cultural influences–widespread, persuasive 

Intersectionality:

1. overlapping, intersecting social identities shaping each of us in unique ways 

Schemas

• help us understand and interpret new information (efficient)

•  Help us access information in new situations

• developed from experience, media ETC

• Can be good, can be bad

  • Oversimplified 

  • Based on limited data

Prejudice

• pre-judgement or irrational generalization about a group of ppl

  • Based on beliefs, emotions, actions– cultural values

  • bias– prejudicial preference or actions

  • Can be positive or negative (usually negative)

• Racial prejudice (racism) pervasive, not confined to any group

• Begins at early age

Stereotypes

• Schemes that organize what you know, feel about a group (including prejudice beliefs)

• Often based on incomplete, limited, biased information 

Stereotype threat

• “apprehensive about confirming a stereotype”

  • The extra emotional burden and cognitive burden that your academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you

    • Ex: girls aren’t good at math, so they are nervous about solving problems

Short Term and Long Term Effects of Stereotype Threat

• Short term: poor test performance 

  • Ex: lower math performance for women and AA when stereotype threat is present 

• Possible explanations

  • performance -avoidance goals (trying/looking dumb)

  • Adoption of self handicapping strategies like procrastinating 

  • Decrease in interest/engagement 

• Long term: disidentification

  • Feeling less motivated, disintetersed, withdrawn

• Combating strategies: values diversity, teach growth mindset

Socioeconomic status (SES)

• A term used for variations in wealth, power, control over resources, and prestige

• Determines by several factors (not just income) and overpowers other cultural differences 

Gender Bias in teaching

• More interaction with boys (- or +)

  • Ask more questions, give more feedback, and offer more specific/valuable comments

• High-achieving white girls receive least teacher attention

• Boys favored in teachers’ perception of math competence 

• International concern: boys underachievement at schools

  • Schools not serving boys? 90% of elementary teachers are women

    • Single sex classroom (results depend)

Multicultural education:

• equity in education of all students

  • ethnic , racial, linguistic, religion ineducaiton of all students

Five dimensions of multicultural education

• Content integration 

• Knowledge construction process

• Prejudice reduction

• Empowering school culture and social structure 

• Equity pedagogy 

No general agreement about “best” approach

sociolinguistics

• study of formal and informal rules of conversations within cultural groups 

  • Pragmatics of the classroom–when, where, how to communicate

  • Participation students–rules for how to take part in classroom activity

Preschool Age

• Gross-motor development

• Fine- motor development

• Development is rapid

Gross-motor development

• Balance improves

• Running, jumping, climbing

Fine-motor development

• Coordination of small movement 

• painting, coloring, legos,

• Left or right handedness established

Elementary School

• Variability among students 

• taller, leaner, stronger

• Girls tend to be larger than boys (11-14)

• Development is steady

Adolescence

• Puberty

  • First signs of puberty around 10

  • Acne, oder, oily skin

  • Different rates

    • Girls done by 15-16

    • Boys grow until 19

Early maturation Effects

• Boys

  • More popular

  • Delinquent and risky behavior

• Girls

  • Negative 

  • Emotional difficulties, disordered eating, earlier sexual activity

  • More likely to use drugs and alcohol

Play, Recess, and Physical Activity

• Essential to social and cognitive development at all ages

  • Babies: act on environment, pounding, throwing

  • Preschoolers: make-believe, games with rules

  • Elementary: more complex, creative, cooperative

  • Adolescence: game/sport for physical/social development

• Cultural differences in playmates, toys, value of play

  • mom/others. Tag, marbles, balls universal

Recess

• Recess and PE being cut to give more times to academics (and to save $)

• More frequent, shorter recesses throughout the day= better behavior

• Effective transitions key (more on this during classroom management)

• Roles of schools in combating health and obesity problems 

Childhood Obesity

• Has more than doubled in children and tripled in adolescence in last 30 years

  • Ages 6-11= 85%

  • Uneven distribution across ethnic and SES group

Urie Bronfenbrenner Theory of development

• Determines that its both nature AND nurture 

  • Both interact with choices

3 principles of Bronfenbrenner Theory

• Individuals are active in their own development 

• Mutual influence: individuals influence their environment and the environment influences the individual 

• Changes in one part of the system affect other parts 

  • Ie changes in homelife/ parents work

Normative Changes

•  (puberty, marriage)= normal changes

Non-normative changes

 (death in the family, divorce, winning the lottery)= unique

Authoritarian Parenting Style

• (low warmth, high control)

  • Controlling, often do not allow children agency, not abusive, but not openly affectionate

Authoritative Parenting Style

•  (high warmth, high control)

  • Clear limitations/expectations and clearly enforced rules, but also affectionate

Permissive Parenting Style

• (high warmth, low control)

  • No clear limitations/expectations and not clearly enforced rules, but highly affectionate

Rejecting/ neglecting Parenting Style

• (low warmth, low control)

  • No clear limitations/expectations, no affection and little attention

Prosocial

• academically, socially competent 

antisocial behavior

• often athletic, aggressive boys, defy adult authority 

Rejected Aggressive

• low self control, hyperactive/impulsive; bad at perspective taking(misunderstand others’ intentions)

Controversial

• hostile in some situations, prosocial behavior in others, have friends, usually happy with their peer relationships

neglected popularity

well adjusted, socially competent, shy but happy

Rejection popularity

• result of being too difficult from the norm– BUT CONTEXT MATTERS 

  • Problems: emotional, physical, behavioral, academic

    • Long lasting effects into adulthood, may become aggressive

Instrumental aggression

• act to claim object/privlegdeg (get what you want)

  • Not intended to harm

Hostile aggression

• direct action to hurt someone; unprovoked

  • two types include overt and relational

Overt aggression

hostile threats, physical attacks

Relational aggression

• verbal attacks, actions to harm social relationships 

  • More common among girl

Cyber aggression

• rumours/ threats terrorize peers via email/ social media

Erik Erikson's theory age 0-1

Trust vs. Mistrust: Infancy

key events: feeding

Erik Erikson's theory age 1-3

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlerhood

key events: potty training

Erik Erikson's theory age 3-5

Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool years

key events: preschool/ exploration

Erik Erikson's theory age 6-11

Industry vs. Inferiority: School-age

key events: school

Erik Erikson's theory age 12-18

Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence

key events: puberty

Erik Erikson's theory age 18-40

Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young Adulthood

key events': connecting with other adults

Erik Erikson's theory age 40-65

Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle Adulthood

key events: parenthood

Erik Erikson's theory age 70-100

Ego Integrity vs. Despair: Late Adulthood

key events: accepting death/ wisdom

James Marcia’s four categories of identity status

• Identity achievement: strong sense of commitment to life choices after considering alternatives

• Moratorium: implore but struggle, suspend choices

• foreclosure : accept parent choices without considering options 

  • Rigid, defensive, dogmatic

• Diffusion: confused about who one is, what one wants

  • Reaches no conclusions (uncentered)

kohlberg’s 3 stages of moral development

• Pre-conventional morality:

  This is the earliest stage where individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions, primarily concerned with avoiding punishment and gaining personal rewards. 

• Conventional morality:

  At this level, people conform to societal rules and expectations, seeking approval from others and maintaining social order. 

• Post-conventional morality:

  This is the most advanced stage where individuals develop their own ethical principles, prioritizing justice and human rights, even if it means going against societal norms. 

theory of mind

the ability to understand that others have different thoughts, feelings, and intentions than you do.

Neurons 

• At birth, have billions of neurons (specialized nerve cells that accumulate and transmit information in the brain and nervous system)

• Neurons =communication mechanisms in the brain

Synapses

Spaces between neurons

Neurogenesis

Continue to produce neurons into adulthood

Experience expectant plasticity

• overproduced in certain parts of the brain during specific developmental periods

Experience dependent plasticity

• connection formed based on experience (individual learning)

Cerebral Cortex

• Greatest # of neurons 

• Problem solving and language

• Last part of brain to develop

  • More susceptible to environment

  • Physical motor first, then hearing then part of the frontal lobe associated with higher level thinking 

  • Temporal lobe= emotion, judgement, and language (not fully developed until highschool and maybe early adulthood)

• Different areas of the cortex have different functions

  • frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe

  • Have to work together to complete complex tasks

Limbic system

• Limbic system develops (emotion, reward, risk-taking) before prefrontal cortex (judgement and decision making)

Piaget’s 4 factors that influence changes

• Maturation: biological changes that are genetically programmed

• Activity: act on environment and alter thinking at same time

• Social experience: learning from others

• Equilibrium: search for balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment

Piaget’s Disequilibrium: assimilation

assimilating new knowledge into previous schemes

Piaget’s Disequilibrium: Accomodation

accommodating schemes to new knowledge

Piaget’s Disequilibrium: Rejection

rejecting the new knowledge

Piagets stages: sensorimotor

• age 0-1

• imitation , memory, thought development

• Recognize object permanence 

• Beginning of goal directed action

• Seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, moving

• 1st accomplishment: object permanence (understanding that object have a separate, permanent existence)

  • Beginning of ability to construct mental representation

  • Implications regarding separation from caretakers 

• 2nd accomplishment: goal directed action 

  • Action schemes 

Piaget’s Stage Preoperational range

• (ages 2-7)

  • Language acquisition and use

  • Symbolic reasoning

  • Egocentric

  • Develops Semiotic function

    • Real objects as symbols

      • Earliest uses ~ pretend play

      • Development of language

  • One-way logic

    • Lacks Conservation

      • Difficulty considering more than oneaspect at a time

  • Egocentrism

    • Everyone shares their point of view, feelings, etc.

  • Theory of Mind develops

PIAGET’S STAGES: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

 (AGES 7- 11/12)

• Solve logical problems through manipulations 

• Laws of conservation 

• Understand reversibility

• Understands conservation tasks, due to:

  • Identity

  • Compensation

  • Classification and reversibility

  • Seriation

• Concrete Operational Child

PIAGET’S STAGES: FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

 (12-ADULTHOOD)

• Abstract thinking 

• scientific reasoning

• Social, multi-layered, complex thinking

• Formal Operations: mental tasks involving abstract thinking/coordination of several variables

• Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning

  • hypothetical situation and reason deductively 

  • also, inductive reasoning ~ (observe then principles)

• Adolescent egocentrism

  • Recognize others’ points of view, just more focused on their own

    • Imaginary audience

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• “ Every function of a child's cultural development appears twice

  • First on the social level

  • Later on the individual level

  • First between people (interpsychological) 

  • Then inside the child (intrapsychological)

  • This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and the formation of concepts 

• Learning occurs in social context vis interactions with others 

• Social interactions guide thinking 

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

— What is known → Skills too difficult for a child to master on his own, but can be done with guidance and encouragement from a knowledgeable person→What is not known

— Sweet spot for learning

Role of Language and private speech

• Cultural impact on language

  • Language as critical: transfer of information

• Development of speech 

• Private speech → self regulation (encourage PS)

  • Contrast w/ piaget (private speech= immature)

  • Trends in private speech 

    • Public speech→private speech →inner speech→creation

Limitations of Vygotsky

• Overemphasis on social interaction? Culture?

  • Kids do learn things on their own

• Not specific enough

  • Which cognitive processes? Big, general ideas

  • Died before chance to elaborate, continue research

Limitations of Piaget

• Stage theory 

  • Really 4 separate stages?

  • More continuous than discontinuous (gradual changes) 

• Underestimation of childrens’ abilities?

  • Can accelerate progress, does not have to be naturally discovered 

• What about culture? And social influence? 

Working memory/ Short term memory

• the information you’re focusing on at any given moment

• WM=storage and processing

• STM= storage only

Cognitive Load

• amount of mental resources (WM) required to perform task

  • Limtiations of WM should be considered when designing/ delivering instruction 

  • intrinsic and extraneous

Intrinsic cognitive load

• amount of cognitive processing required to figure out material

Extraneous cognitive load

•  cognitive capacity required to deal with irrelevant stuff to task at hand (depletes WM)

Long Term Memory: Explicit

— memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall

— episodic or semantic

Episodic Explicit Long term memory

• about your own life experiences (when something happened, subject to inaccuracies as we remember event)

Flashbulb memories

—dramatic or emotional moments: vivid, detailed

—explicit long term memory type

Semantic memory

• Semantic memory: memory for meaning (words, facts, theories, concepts)

  • Stored as propositions: (small units of knowledge that are interconnected and related)

  • Images– representations based on physical attitudes 

• explicit long term memory

Long term memory: Implicit

Were not usually conscious but influences our behavior or though (without awareness)

priming, classical, and procedural

Priming

—activating info that is in long term memory but you're not aware that it has been activated

—long term implicit memory

Classical conditioning

• forming connections through repeated pairings

• long term implicit

Procedural

• you just know how to do something (done so many times, its automatic)

• long term implicit

Long Term Memory

• Representing information in long term memory

  • Concepts 

    • Category used to group similar events, objects, or people 

    • Organize information into manageable units

      • Ie: colors, old, freshman

  • Schemas 

    • Data structures that allow us to represent large amounts of complex information, make inferences, and understand new information 

      • Personal

How Do We get info into LTM

• Elaboration (make conncections)

  • Depends on current contents of LTM 

  • Can result in interference as well 

  • Adding and extending meaning by new info to old

• Organization

  • Automatic: human tendency to seek patterns 

  • Can also be deliberate and strategic 

  • Ordered logical networks of information 

• Imagery 

  • Information that is coded both visually and verbally is easiest to learn 

  • Just using multiple representations along is not enough– support and checks for understanding 

• Context 

  • Sometimes implicit: associations with an event (smells)

  • Physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event