AR Chapter 2: The First Humans

Primate

The order of animals that includes lemurs, raisers, monkeys, apes, and humans; characterized by grasping hands, flexible limbs, and a highly developed sense of vision

Hominoidea

The taxonomic group (family) that includes the human and ape members of the primates, both fossil and modern forms (because of teeth shape, no tail, and no swinging arms)

Dryopithecines

Generic term for Miocene fossil ancestor of both living apes and modern humans, found in Asia, Africa, and Europe (emerged in Miocene era)

Paleoanthropology

Branch of anthropology that combines archaeology and physical anthropology to study the biological and behavioral remains of early hominins

Fossil

Mineralized bone of exitinct animal, most bones are associated with people in the Pliocene, Pleistocene, or Holocene are too young to have been mineralized, but the term fossil skull and fossil bone is often used generally in those cases as well

Hominoid

Descriptive term for any human or ape, past or present, characterized by teeth shape, absence of tail and swinging arms

Hominid

Obsolete term for referring to human members of primates, both fossil and modern forms

Hominin

Term that refers to human, chimp, or gorilla members of the primates, both fossil and modern forms

Bonobos

Small species of chimpanzee, closely related to humans

Sexual Dimorphism

A difference in size between male and female members of species (ex. male gorrilas are larger than female ones)

Australopithecines

Generic term for various species of genus Australopithecines

Locomotion

Method of animal development (ex. bipedalism)

Plio-Pleistocene

Used to describe the time between the earliest hominins during the Pliocene and beginning of Pliostecene (late Pliocene and early Pliostecene, when A. afarenis split to different groups)

Paranthropus

Genus of early hominins, contemporary with Australopithcenes, that includes boisei and robust as species

Polygynous

Having more than one mate (in which males compete for females)

Relative Dating

Technique used to estimate the antiquity of archaeological materials, generally based on association with materials of known age or simply to say that one item is younger and the other one older

Association

Relationship between items in an archaeological site. Items in association are found close together and/or in the same layer of deposit. It is often used for dating purposes, because items found in association are assumed to be of same age

Absolute Dating

Method of associating archaeological dates in calendar years so that an age in actual number of years is known or can be estimated (most common techniques rely on radioactive decay)

Isotope

One of the atomic states of an element, (like 12C, 13C, and 14C)

Isotopic Techniques

Method for absolute dating that relied on well known methods of decay in radioactive isotopes, especially carbon, potassium, and uranium

Radiocarbon dating is used to date archaeological materials

Radiopotassium dating (potassium-argon dating)

Dating used to determine the age of early human ancestors. It’s based on potassium being found in abundance

Half-Life

Measure of rate of decay in radioactive materials; half the radioactive materials with disappear within the period of one half-life (Potassium has long half time, so generally can’t date thing younger than 500,000 years)

Argon-Argon Dating

A more accurate method of potassium-argon dating that involves converting potassium to argon before the isotope ratios are measured (Used to measure proportion of 40A to 39A) (Allows things younger than 100,000 to be dated)

Bipedalism

Human method of locomotion, walking on two legs, one of the first human characteristics to distinguish early hominins, as opposed to quadrupedalism, walking on four legs

Oldowan

Name given to assemblages of early pebble tools and flakes belonging to the Basal Paleolithic, derived from Olduvai

Percussion Flaking

Technique for producing stone artifacts by striking or snapping crystallized stone with a soft or hard hammer. This results in a flake being removed from from parent cobble, or core, by blow from another stone, the hammer stone

Flake

Type of stone artifact produced by removing piece of core through chipping

Core

Stone from which other pieces or flakes are removed. Core tools are shaped by the removal of flakes

Hammerstone

Stone used to knock flakes from cores

Debitage

Term referring to all the pieces of shatter flakes produced and not used when stone tools are made

Flint

Fine-grained, crystalline stone that fractures in a regular pattern, producing sharp-edged flakes; highly prized and extensively used for making flaked stone tools

Flintknapping

Process of making chipped stone artifacts; the striking of stone with a hard or soft hammer

Assemblage

Set of artifacts and other remains found on archaeological site or within specific level of site

Lithic

Pertaining to stone or rock

Unifacial

Term describing a flaked tool in which only one face or side is retouched to make a sharp edge

Bifacial

Flaked tool on which both faces or sides are retouched to make a thinner tool

Retouching

Shaping or sharpening of stone artifacts through percussion or pressure flaking

Handedness

Preferential use of the right or left hand; related to the organization of the brain in two hemispheres (first hominin to occur in is homo habilis)

Tools

Any equipment, weapon, or object made by humans to change the environment

Estrus

The cycle of female sexual receptivity in many species of animals

Extrasomatic

Literally “outside the body”; nonbiological, non genetic

Paleolithic

First period of human prehistory, extending from time of first tools more than 2.5 may until the end of Pleistocene 10,000 years ago. It’s characterized by the use of stone flaked tools (also known as Old Stone Age)

Basal Paleolithic includes pebbles and flake tools of Olsowan industry

The Lower Paleolithic includes Acheulean assemblages generally associated with homo Erectus, and was characterized by handles and flake tools

Neolithic

Period of time of early farmers with domesticated plants and animals, polished stone tools, permanent villages, and often pottery (also known as the New Stone Age)

Glacials

A cold episode of the Pleistocene, in contrast to a warmer interglacial period (also called an ice age). The classic European sequence of the Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Wurm glacials were recently been revised, with the recognition of a large number of cold/warm oscillations in the Pleistocene

Interglacials

Warm period of the Pleistocene, in contrast to a colder period called the glacial

Glaciation

Expansion of continental glacial ice during period of cold climate

Oxygen Isotope Ratio

Ratio of different oxygen isotopes in ocean water, varying with temperature of the water; measured in seashells and used as indicator of temperature change over time

Milankovitch Forcing

A term describing the phenomenonon considered to be the prime reason for glacial fluctuations and climate change. Changing factors are the distance between Earth and the sun and tilt of the Earth’s axis, which play major roles in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth, atmospheric temperature, and the expansion and retreat of continental glaciation. The cyclical nature of variation in these factors was recognized by Milankovitch

Handaxe

Large, tear-drop shaped stone bifacially flaked to a point at one end and broader base at the other. This characteristic artifact of the lower Paleolithic; for general purpose use that continued into Middle Paleolithic

Reduction Technique

Method in archaeology involving the removal (as opposed to addition) of materials from a core that becomes the finished product; includes techniques such as flintknapping and woodcarving

Acheulean

A major archaeological culture of the lower paleolithic; named after the site of St. Acheul in France (hallmark of Acheulean is handle)

Hard-Hammer Technique

Flintknapping technique for making stone tools by striking one stone, or core, with another stone, or hammer

Soft-Hammer Technique

Flinknapping technique that involves the use of a hammer or bone, antler, or wood, rather than stone

Cleaver

Companion tool of the Archeulean handaxe. Cleavers have a broad leading edge, whereas handles come to a point

Burins

Stone tool with right-angle edges, used for planning and engraving

Clactonian

Term used for assemblages from the Lower Paleolithic, lacking handaxes and characterized large flakes with heavy retouching and notches

Cutmarks

Trace left by bone by stone or metal tool used in butchering a carcass; one of the primary forms of evidence for meat-eating by early hominins

Sexual Division of Labor

The cooperative relationship between the sexes in hunter-gathering groups involving different male and female activity