AP Psych Study Guide

Gestalt

an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts

Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud; unconscious conflicts/desires (0-5 years, repression (ex. Oedipus complex))

Behaviorism

immediate environment (friends and family) & learned behaviors (rewards/punishment, observation)

Humanism

Abraham Maslow; hierarchy of needs (bio needs, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization)

Cognitive Psychology

thinking; decision making, prospective thinking (future), perception, memory. Info processing; computer

Evolutionary Psychology

genetic mutation (adaptation); survival more likely, reproduce. Selective breeding (bred for specific traits)

Neuroscience (Biological)

brain (dictate how we think and believe), chemicals; hormones & neurotransmitter, genetics

Behavior genetics

the study of genetic and environmental influences on behaviors

Sociocultural

norms, roles, group membership; gender, race, & socioeconomic status

Basic research vs. applied research

basic research gathers information and data on a subject; applied research uses that data to look for answers to a question

Psychiatrist

medical doctors that prescribe medications

Counselor

go to them for adjustment issues, family, and grief; give advice and guidance

Clinical

mental disorders, psych wards, & research, diagnosis, and treatment

Industrial-organizational

helps make workplace as safe, productive, and satisfying as possible

Developmental

focuses on human growth and changes across their lifespan

School

student success & learning disabilities (IEP & 504)

Educational

the study of how humans learn to retain knowledge, primarily in educational settings like classrooms

Human factors

examines human abilities, limitations, behaviors, and processes in order to inform human-centered designs

Consumer

regards buying patterns, customs and preferences, in relation to consumer products

Critical thinking

the ability to analyze and evaluate information presented about a concept or a research study

Hindsight bias

our tendency to find information unsurprising after learning it

Overconfidence

elevated confidence in one's ability to do something

Confirmation bias

seeking out information that affirms one's understanding & aligns with one's beliefs

Operational definitions

specifies on how variables are measured

IV

manipulated in an experiment

DV

measured in an experiment

Confounding/Third variables

out barriers that can change the results of an experiment

Replication

reproducing a study to see if the same results are achieved

Experiment

cause and effect; IV & DV

Survey

quantitative (yes/no; Likert Scale); & qualitative (written response).

Framing/wording bias

the way a question is worded

Interview

face-to-face questions asked

Observation

lab (controlled) & naturalistic (natural, organic environment)

Case Study

single person/small group, ethical considerations, rare

Single-blind vs. Double-blind

researchers know vs. nobody knows

Placebo

something that looks real but does not affect the body

Experimental vs. control group

experimental group receives the variable being tested; control group does not receive the variable

Informed consent

A process ensuring participants are fully aware of the research and agree to participate.

Assumed consent

Consent that is presumed based on the circumstances, rather than explicitly given.

Withdrawal

The right of participants to leave a study at any time without penalty.

Limit deception

Minimizing misleading information provided to participants in research.

Debrief

A process of informing participants about the study's purpose and any deception used after the study.

Privacy/anonymity

Ensuring participant information is kept confidential and not linked to their identity.

Random sample

A sample chosen randomly from a population.

Random assignment

The process of placing participants into different groups using randomization.

Scatterplots

A chart that uses dots to show the relationship between two sets of data, typically numeric variables.

Positive correlation

A relationship where both components increase together.

Negative correlation

A relationship where one component increases while the other decreases.

Illusory correlation

A perceived relationship between two variables that is actually influenced by a third variable.

Coefficient

A statistical measure indicating the strength and direction of a relationship between two or more variables (ranging from -1 to 1).

Frequency Histogram

A graph that displays data in categories using vertical bars to show the frequency of each category.

Independent variable

The variable that is controlled in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The variable that changes based on the control in an experiment.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that can affect the results of an experiment.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers.

Median

The midpoint value in a set of numbers.

Mode

The most frequently repeated number in a set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of numbers.

Standard deviation

A measure of the average distance of each data point from the mean.

Normal distribution

A distribution where data points are relatively the same.

Positive skew

A distribution with high outliers, skewed to the right.

Negative skew

A distribution with low outliers, skewed to the left.

Statistical significance

A method used to determine if observed differences between groups are due to chance or are real.

Percentile

A percentage indicating how a score compares to others at or below a particular score.

Dendrites

Parts of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

Soma

The life force of the neuron cell.

Axon

The part of a neuron that sends messages across to other neurons.

Terminals

Parts of a neuron that contain neurotransmitters, or chemical messengers.

Myelin Sheath

A layer that makes messages travel faster along the axon.

Action potential

The rapid firing of a neuron when depolarized and neurotransmitters are released.

Resting potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing.

Reuptake

The process by which a neuron reabsorbs remaining neurotransmitters for future use.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood states, with decreases linked to depression and increases linked to anxiety.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, rewards, movement, and attention.

ACh (Acetylcholine)

A neurotransmitter involved in movement and memory.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters released during painful activities, acting as natural painkillers.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that stops neurons from firing, allowing relaxation.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter that increases the rate of neural firing.

Central nervous system

The part of the nervous system that includes the spinal cord and brain.

Peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system that connects to the spinal cord and includes somatic and autonomic systems.

Sympathetic nervous system

The part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for rest and digest functions.

Motor neurons

Neurons related to voluntary movement.

Sensory neurons

Neurons related to sensory information.

Estrogen

A hormone produced by the ovaries that affects emotions and sexual behaviors.

Testosterone

A hormone produced by the testes that influences anger, aggression, and sex drive.

Oxytocin

A hormone known as the bonding hormone, important in childbirth.

Pituitary gland

The master gland that regulates other glands and produces HGH.

Thyroid

A gland that affects energy and metabolism, with low metabolism indicating underactivity.

Pineal gland

brain; melatonin

Adrenal glands

sits on top of kidney; stress hormones adrenaline & cortisol

Lesion

any abnormal damage or change in the tissue of an organism, often caused by disease or trauma

EEG

reads how active/inactive neurons in certain areas are. Sleep studies; not as accurate as other scans: rough area

CT

x-ray + computer = combination of both; allows to see bone & soft tissue. Shows brain damage/tumors, often used for diagnosis (doesn't show function/activity)

MRI

more detailed than CT scans. Magnetic energy & radio frequency. Multiple angles & safer than radiation

fMRI

maps blood flow to more active areas of the brain. Video possible, & more accurate than PET scan

PET

inject radioactive glucose (sugar), not as helpful for structural differences (CT/MRI), but better for function/activity

Medulla oblongata

biological functions = keeps you breathing + heart beating

Cerebellum

balance, coordination, major muscle movements; damage = wobbly

Pons

sleep, generating dreams